Measuring participation by socially vulnerable groups in hazard mitigation planning,Bertie County,North Carolina

In accordance with the Disaster Mitigation Act, most US counties have a hazard mitigation plan (HMP) to reduce future disaster losses. HMPs are important as they can be used to proactively assess risk, direct future development, raise awareness and build consensus. Using a population-based sample, we interviewed residents of Bertie County, NC, about their awareness of and participation in the HMP process to determine if demographics, social vulnerability or hazard vulnerability were associated with increased awareness or participation. We also assessed whether these factors were associated with knowledge of policy changes and investments that were adopted in the HMP. Overall, the unemployed were the only group less likely to report awareness of or participation in HMP development. African-Americans, mobile home residents, the poor, short-term residents and those with less disaster experience were less likely to be aware of policies and investments prioritised in the HMP. Targeted efforts to increase awareness could potentially improve disaster outcomes among vulnerable populations.     

Evaluation of cleaning and disinfection protocols for commercial farm equipment following a foreign animal disease outbreak

This study evaluated the microbiocidal efficacy of a cleaning and disinfection (C&D) treatment using stainless-steel coupons applied to three common types of animal mortality transport vehicles when exposed to agricultural conditions. Metal test coupons, inoculated with bacteriophage MS2, were affixed to the undercarriage of three types of animal mortality transport vehicles at various locations. Coupons were grimed by maneuvering the test vehicles down a series of wet dirt roads. Coupons were attached and extracted at various points to evaluate C&D performance with and without grime. C&D efficacy using a water-supplied pressure washing system and a dilute sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution was determined by comparing the difference in recovered viable virus between positive control coupons and test coupons. The results demonstrated a relatively high surface decontamination efficacy, with all but one location showing >5 log reduction of MS2. Coupons located on the roll-off truck's inside-back bumper contained the highest level of grime and resulted in a 4 log reduction of MS2. There was no significant difference in C&D efficacy across vehicle types, but locations impacted by grime and lack of accessibility achieved lower efficacies on average. These findings suggest that common C&D protocols, when applied to farm mortality transport vehicles, are effective. Hard-to-access locations containing high levels of grime may be candidates for additional targeted treatment.     

Low‐concentration hydrogen peroxide decontamination for Bacillus spore contamination in buildings

Remediation and recovery efforts after a release of Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) spores may be difficult and costly. In addition, response and recovery technologies may be focused on critical resources, leaving the small business or homeowner without remediation options. This study evaluates the efficacy of relatively low levels of hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) delivered from off‐the‐shelf equipment for the inactivation of Bacillus spores within an indoor environment. Decontamination evaluations were conducted in a house using both Bacillus atrophaeus var. globigii (Bg; as surrogates for B. anthracis) inoculated on the carpet and galvanized metal as coupons and Geobacillus stearothermophilus (Gs) as biological indicators on steel. The total decontamination time ranged from 4 to 7 days. Using the longer exposure times, low concentrations of HPV (average levels below 20 parts per million) effectively inactivated Bg and Gs spores on the materials tested. The HPV was generated with commercial humidifiers and household‐strength hydrogen peroxide solutions. The presence of home furnishings did not have a significant impact on HPV efficacy. This simple, inexpensive, and effective decontamination method could have significant utility for remediation following a B. anthracis spore release, such as following a terrorist attack.     

Investigating the key indicators for evaluating post‐disaster shelter

This study sought to identify the primary indicators for evaluating shelter assistance following natural disasters and then to develop a shelter evaluation instrument based on these indicators. Electronic databases and the ‘grey’ literature were scoured for publications with a relation to post‐disaster shelter assistance. Indicators for evaluating such assistance were extracted from these publications. In total, 1,525 indicators were extracted from 181 publications. A preliminary evaluation instrument was designed from these 1,525 indicators. Shelter experts checked the instrument for face and content validity, and it was revised subsequently based on their input. The revised instrument comprises a version for use by shelter agencies (48 questions that assess 23 indicators) and a version for use by beneficiaries (52 questions that assess 22 indicators). The instrument can serve as a standardised tool to enable groups to gauge whether or not the shelter assistance that they supply meets the needs of disaster‐affected populations.     

Tsunami mortality and displacement in Aceh province, Indonesia

A survey of 388 Indonesian households displaced by the December 2004 tsunami was conducted in Aceh province in February 2005. Of tsunami-displaced households in Aceh Barat and Nagan Raya districts, 61.8 per cent reported one or more family members as dead or missing due to the tsunami, with an overall mortality rate of 13.9 per cent (95% confidence interval (CI): 12.4-15.4). Risk of death was greatest in the youngest and oldest age groups, and among females. Overall, 36 per cent of tsunami-displaced households indicated an intention to return to their original community within three months, and displaced households residing in host communities were 2.2 (95% CI: 1.2-2.8) times more likely to state an intention to return to their original villages or another community as those residing in camps. The tsunami recovery effort should focus on strategies that facilitate either prompt return or permanent, voluntary relocation for those displaced.     

Predicting biodiversity change: outside the climate envelope, beyond the species-area curve

Efforts to anticipate threats to biodiversity take the form of species richness predictions (SRPs) based on simple correlations with current climate and habitat area. We review the major approaches that have been used for SRP, species-area curves and climate envelopes, and suggest that alternative research efforts may provide more understanding and guidance for management. Extinction prediction suffers from a number of limitations related to data and the novelty of future environments. We suggest additional attention to (1) identification of variables related to biodiversity that are diagnostic and potentially more predictable than extinction, (2) constraints on species dispersal and reproduction that will determine population persistence and range shifts, including limited sources or potential immigrants for many regions, and (3) changes in biotic interactions and phenology. We suggest combinations of observational and experimental approaches within a framework available for ingesting heterogeneous data sources. Together, these recommendations amount to a shift in emphasis from prediction of extinction numbers to identification of vulnerabilities and leading indicators of change, as well as suggestions for surveillance tools needed to evaluate important variables and the experiments likely to provide most insight.     

Methane and carbon dioxide production from simulated anaerobic degradation of cattle carcasses

Approximately 2.2million cattle carcasses require disposal annually in the United States. Land burial is a convenient disposal method that has been widely used in animal production for disposal of both daily mortalities as well as during catastrophic mortality events. To date, greenhouse gas production after mortality burial has not been quantified, and this study represents the first attempt to quantify greenhouse gas emissions from land burial of animal carcasses. In this study, anaerobic decomposition of both homogenized and unhomogenized cattle carcass material was investigated using bench-scale reactors. Maximum yields of methane and carbon dioxide were 0.33 and 0.09m(3)/kg dry material, respectively, a higher methane yield than that previously reported for municipal solid waste. Variability in methane production rates were observed over time and between reactors. Based on our laboratory data, annual methane emissions from burial of cattle mortalities in the United States could total 1.6Tg CO(2) equivalents. Although this represents less than 1% of total emissions produced by the agricultural sector in 2009, greenhouse gas emissions from animal carcass burial may be significant if disposal of swine and poultry carcasses is also considered.     

Effects of natural organic matter type and concentration on the aggregation of citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles

The aggregation of 12 nm citrate-stabilized gold nanoparticles (cit-AuNPs) in the presence of four different natural organic matter (NOM) isolates and a monovalent electrolyte (KCl) was evaluated using time-resolved dynamic light scattering. All four NOM isolates stabilized the cit-AuNPs with respect to aggregation. However, specific effects varied among the different NOM isolates. At pH = 6 in 80 mM KCl, low concentrations (<0.25 mg C per L) of large molecular weight Suwannee River Humic Acid (SRHA) was required to stabilize cit-AuNPs, while larger concentrations (>2 mg C per L) of smaller Suwannee River Fulvic Acid (SRFA) were necessary at the same ionic strength. Suwannee River NOM (SRNOM) which contains both SRHA and SRFA behaved in a manner intermediate between the two. Pony Lake Fulvic Acid (PLFA), an autochthonous NOM isolate, provided substantial stability at low concentrations, yet aggregation was induced at NOM concentrations > 2 mg C per L, a trend that is hypothesized to be the result of favourable hydrophobic interactions between coated particles induced at increased surface coverage. For all NOM isolates, it appears that NOM adsorption or conformational changes at the AuNP surfaces result in significant increases in the hydrodynamic diameter that aren't attributable to NP-NP aggregation.     

Evaluating Conservation Program Success with Landsat and SWAT

In the United States, many state and federally funded conservation programs are required to quantify the water quality benefits resulting from their efforts. The objective of this research was to evaluate the impact of conservation practices subsidized by the Oklahoma Conservation Commission on phosphorus and sediment loads to Lake Wister. Conservation practices designed to increase vegetative cover in grazed pastures were evaluated using Landsat imagery and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Several vegetative indices were derived from Landsat imagery captured before and after the implementation of conservation practices. Collectively, these indicators provided an estimate of the change in vegetative soil cover attributable to conservation practices in treated fields. Field characteristics, management, and changes in vegetative cover were used in the SWAT model to simulate sediment and phosphorus losses before and after practice implementation. Overall, these conservation practices yielded a 1.9% improvement in vegetative cover and a predicted sediment load reduction of 3.5%. Changes in phosphorus load ranged from a 1.0% improvement to a 3.5% increase, depending upon initial vegetative conditions. The use of fertilizers containing phosphorus as a conservation practice in low-productivity pastures was predicted by SWAT to increase net phosphorus losses despite any improvement in vegetative cover. This combination of vegetative cover analysis and hydrologic simulation was a useful tool for evaluating the effects of conservation practices at the basin scale and may provide guidance for the selection of conservation measures subsidized in future conservation programs.     

An assessment of historical change in two northern Minnesota lakes

Two northern Minnesota lakes that had been studied in detail 22 years earlier (1958) were restudied to determine the extent of alteration in ecological conditions. Approximately one year after the original investigation, a coal-fired power plant, which incremented sulfate loading by about 6 kg/ha-yr, began operation nine miles away. These lakes lie within a region judged susceptible to acidic precipitation, though each lake, based on its buffering capacity, would be judged only moderately sensitive. In spite of the influence of this plant and other anthropogenic inputs, the change in lake ecology was apparently minimal. Water clarity decreased in both lakes and some alteration in zooplankton community structure was observed. The long-term utility of lake surveys depends upon how carefully and completely conditions can be reconstructed from records and reports. Past surveys generally omit measures of variability for the data, allowing only qualitative comparisons to be drawn. In order to judge the graded responses of aquatic ecosystems, necessary to sound management, quantitative measures are needed.Deceased.