RETRACTED ARTICLE: Groundwater contaminations and health perspectives in developing world case study: Gaza Strip

Groundwater is the only source of water in the Gaza Strip. The results of a 10-year monitoring program revealed that more than 90% of the available water is not suitable for drinking purposes as a result of elevated chemical contaminants as well as microbiological organisms. The archives of the local hospitals showed catastrophic records on diseases caused by water directly and indirectly. Methemoglobinemia and dental fluorosis are well-known diseases caused by elevated nitrate and fluoride, respectively. Water-borne diseases are currently high and will increase if water, sanitation, and food-control services are not restored, or are allowed to deteriorate further. Heavy use and misuse of banned and prohibited pesticides may show other hard diseases in the near future. Geography, politics, and war combine to make the Gaza Strip a worst-case scenario for water-resource planners. Urgent alternative water resources should be secured and the human health should be given the highest priority.     

Sources of adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) in sludge of Gaza

Average concentrations of adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) in sludge from the Gaza Strip reached 600 mg kg(-1) which currently represents a major limiting factor for sludge application in agriculture. This study aims to identify the main sources of AOX in Gaza where the area is small with limited industrial activities. The results showed that the AOX in effluent sludge is formed mainly inside the treatment plant. Although the plant receives AOX wastewater of only 85 microg l(-1), this value increased five fold inside the plant to an average of 400 microg l(-1) in the effluent wastewater. On the other hand, the sludge from the first sedimentation pond showed an AOX concentration of 213 mg kg(-1) and increased in the final sedimentation pond to 500 mg kg(-1). The AOX concentration in three month old sludge was 130 mg kg(-1). The textile and detergent industries are the major AOX producing industries in Gaza, with an average AOX of 40,000 microg l(-1) in their effluent wastewater. These values do not represent a significant AOX pollution load to the treatment plant because these industries are very limited and their effluents are diluted before entering the municipal treatment plant. Industrial activity decreased in 2006 to less than 70% of the previous four years. Consequently, the AOX in the industrial effluent decreased from 150,000 to 40,000 microg l(-1) over the same time period. Sludge from these industries showed 1300 mg kg(-1) AOX for the past four years and only 400 mg kg(-1) in 2006. Moreover, the AOX in the influent wastewater discharged to the treatment plant decreased from 320 to 85 microg l(-1) for the same period. This study revealed that the major AOX is formed inside the treatment plant and especially in the anaerobic facilities. There was no correlation between the AOX concentrations in the sludge and the wastewater at the same location. Moreover, there was no correlation between the AOX in sludge/wastewater and dissolved oxygen, pH and chloride in that treatment plant.     

Zamzam water: concentration of trace elements and other characteristics

Many Muslims drink Zamzam water for use either medicinally or religiously. Millions of pilgrims drink it and take bottles of it to their home countries. Heated scientific and political debates appeared after BBC reported in May 2011 that Zamzam water is poisonous, because of the high levels of arsenic. The World Health Organizations classifies arsenic as a human carcinogen, but some types of arsenic are also used as medicines. Adequate scientific studies on the Zamzam water are absent. This paper will provide, for the first time, basic and comprehensive information regarding the geochemical properties of Zamzam water for more than 30 indicators and using the state-of-the-art laboratory facilities. The data will help us to understand the sources of pollution under discussion, reactions at both local and international levels; and will highlight the potential healing capacity of Zamzam water. Thirty Zamzam water samples were collected by three distinct methods; from 10 pilgrims living in different locations in Germany in 2007, 10 samples from shops in Frankfurt and Berlin in 2011, and 10 samples directly from Makkah in 2011. The samples were analyzed 2 weeks after collection for more than 30 indicators: pH, EC, Eh, Cl, F, Br, NO₃, PO₄, SO₄, HCO₃, Ag, Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn beside others. Four major instruments were used; the IC, the ICPOES, the ICPMS and the HGAAS. The quality of the water did not change for 2 years and there was an excellent agreement among the results of the 30 water samples as well as between the results of the 2 years for the same samples analyzed in 2007 and 2008. The water is alkaline (average pH is 8) with an average Li concentration of 15 μg L⁻¹. The average concentrations of As and NO₃ showed values three times higher than the WHO standards (27 μg L⁻¹ and 150 mg L⁻¹, respectively). The averages of Ca and K were 95 and 50 mg L⁻¹, respectively. Very urgent steps are required to scientifically screen for the elevated parameters As, NO₃, Ca, and K in all Zamzam water sources and locations with full transparency. The resultant information should be made available to the public, and the relationship between pollution and human health should be addressed. The alkalinity of Zamzam water and the presence of trace amounts of As and Li may cause the healing power. However, a scientific strategy should be developed and adopted to enable further research and studies on toxicology and treatment technologies could be applied if needed.     

Trace elements in major solid-pesticides used in the Gaza Strip

This study describes the purity of pesticides used in Gaza in terms of trace elements. A semi-quantitative EMMA-XRF technique and quantitative ICP/OES was used to determine the concentrations of Al, As, Ba, Br, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sc, Se, Sr, Ti and Zn in 50 of the most commonly used solid pesticides collected from the five central shops in the Gaza Strip. The results revealed that the pesticides contain considerable amounts of trace elements and do not comply with the expected-theoretical structure of each species. Moreover, they do not reflect the actual constituents mentioned in the trade labels. Interviews with market owners and field surveys confirmed that the pesticides were not pure. In some cases they have been mixed in local markets with minor inorganic species without a scientific basis. They may also have been smuggled into Gaza with differing impurities. The results indicate that pesticides should be considered as a source of certain trace metals (particularly Cu, Mn and Zn) and other elements (Br, Sr and Ti), which may affect their mass balances in soil and groundwater as well as their plant uptake. Different scenarios and calculation models of the transport of trace elements in soil and groundwater of the Gaza Strip should include pesticides as an additional source.