Human intake of PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxin like PCBs in Japan, 2001 and 2002

PCDDs, PCDFs, and dioxin like PCBs (dioxin) surveillance results derived from regular environmental monitoring as well as other dioxin surveys by national and local governmental bodies in Japan were collected and analyzed. Several thousand data for air and soil in fiscal year 2001 (from 01/04/2001 to 31/03/2002) and 2002, water (from the sea, rivers and lakes), sediment (from the sea, rivers and lakes), ground water, aquatic organisms, purified water from water purification plants, raw water from water purification plants, human breast milk, and human blood in fiscal 2001, and total diet study (TDS) and various kinds of foodstuff in fiscal 1998-2002 were collected. Average human uptake of dioxin in Japan in fiscal 2001 was estimated at 1.68 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day, while uptake in fiscal 2002 was estimated at 1.52 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day. Diet accounted for more than 90% of the total intake. Contributions of inhalation and soil ingestion were relatively small. Age-group-specific contribution of various foodstuff to total dietary intake was also estimated. The estimates of intake through fish and shellfish accounted for approximately 45-70% of total dietary intake in each age group. Monte Carlo simulation was conducted, using the data of the air and soil concentrations in fiscal 2001 and the total diet study data in fiscal 1998-2001, in order to obtain information on the variability of dioxin intake; The estimated average, median, 5th percentile and 95th percentile of the intake distribution were 1.78, 1.69, 0.95 and 2.91 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day, respectively. This study found that the average total intake estimates in Japan in both fiscal 2001 and 2002 were estimated to be below tolerable daily intake level (TDI) defined by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (i.e. 4 pg-TEQ/kg-bw/day). The 95th percentile of the dioxin intake distributions estimated with Monte Carlo simulation using the data of the air and soil concentrations in fiscal 2001 and TDS data in fiscal 1998-2001 was also below the Japanese TDI.     

Historical and geographical aspects of the increasing perfluorooctanoate and perfluorooctane sulfonate contamination in human serum in Japan

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) have recently received attention due to their widespread contamination in the environment, as well as in wildlife and humans. We measured the PFOS and PFOA concentrations in historically recorded human serum samples at an age range between 20 and 59 years collected in Kyoto, 20 persons per each time point (n=100), and also the PFOS and PFOA concentrations in human serum samples at an age range between 20 and 59 years from 10 locations throughout Japan (n=200). The historical samples collected from 1983 to 1999 demonstrated that the PFOA concentrations in males and females from Kyoto have increased 4.4-fold and 4.3-fold at a rate of increase of 0.49 ng/ml/year and 0.42 ng/ml/year, respectively. In contrast, serum concentrations of PFOS reached a plateau in the late 1980s. There are also regional differences in both the PFOS and PFOA serum concentrations. The concentrations in serum [geometric mean (geometric standard deviation)] (ng/ml) in 2003-2004 ranged from 7.6(1.6) in the town of Matsuoka in Fukui prefecture to 27.8(1.6) in Kyoto city, and ranged from 2.3(1.5) in Matsuoka to 14.5(1.3) in Osaka city for PFOS and PFOA, respectively.     

Uptake of deuterium by dead leaves exposed to deuterated water vapor in a greenhouse at daytime and nighttime

Dead leaves were exposed to deuterated water vapor (D(2)O) as a substitute of tritiated water (HTO) in a greenhouse at daytime and nighttime to examine uptake and release of tritium by dead leaves because they cover a wide area of the forest floor and are therefore a major target material to be exposed when HTO is atmospherically derived to the forest. The dead cedar needles showed faster uptake and faster release rates during and after the exposure than the fresh ones, and the equilibrium concentration of the dead cedar needles was about two times higher than the fresh ones, indicating a quick response and a high buffering potential of dead leaves. The relation between uptake of D(2)O and number of stoma was examined for dead deciduous leaves; the species with larger number of stoma accumulated more D(2)O at the daytime and nighttime exposures. However, drying of the dead leaves suppressed D(2)O uptake greatly at daytime, suggesting stomata's opening and closing controls the D(2)O uptake of dead leaves.     

Examination of dioxin fluxes recorded in dated aquatic-sediment cores in the Kanto region of Japan using multivariate data analysis

Past dioxin (coplanar polychlorinated biphenyl (Co-PCB), 2,3,7,8-substituted polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD) and 2,3,7,8-substituted polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF)) fluxes recorded in dated aquatic-sediment cores were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). The data set consisted of samples from four cores collected from the Kanto region of Japan. Time trends and spatial differences in the dioxin flux were examined, and the potential relationship to emission sources was investigated. Twenty-five compounds and 58 core slices, corresponding to the later half of the 20th century, were subjected to the analysis. The PCA of both log-transformed and maximum-value-standardized data successfully divided the dioxin compounds into a small number of groups, and three similar clusters of Co-PCBs, PCDDs and penta- to hepta-CDFs were identified. PCB formulations used in the past are judged to have been responsible for the major part of the Co-PCB flux recorded in the sediment cores. However, the relationship to emission sources needs further investigation. It is suggested that most 2,3,7,8-substituted PCDDs and PCDFs are different from Co-PCBs in their emission sources or movements in the environment. The subcore clusters obtained from the PCA of log-transformed data show that the cores from different sampling areas exhibited distinct dioxin fluxes and compositions. Common time trends among the cores were more effectively summarized by the PCA of maximum-value-standardized data focusing on relative time trends. PC scores show that recently the flux of each dioxin compound in the four cores has been generally declining after having reached a peak.     

Positive buoyancy in eel leptocephali: an adaptation for life in the ocean surface layer

Many planktonic organisms have adaptations such as floats or lighter substances to obtain buoyancy to help them remain in the surface layer of the ocean where photosynthetic primary production occurs and food is most abundant. The almost totally transparent eel larvae, called leptocephali, are a unique member of the planktonic community of the surface layer, but their ecology and physiology are poorly understood. We conducted a comparative study on the specific gravity of planktonic animals including 25 taxa of 7 phyla of marine invertebrates and 6 taxa of leptocephali (vertebrate) to gain a broad perspective on the buoyancy of the eggs and larval stages of the Japanese eel. The specific gravity values of the various freshly caught marine invertebrate taxa varied widely from 1.020 to 1.425, but leptocephali had some of the lowest values (1.028–1.043). Artificially cultured live leptocephali had even greater buoyancies with specific gravities of 1.019–1.025 that were close to or lower than seawater, and their buoyancy showed ontogenetic changes among the different early life history stages. Leptocephali appear to have a unique mechanism of buoyancy control by chloride cells all over body surface through osmoregulation of body fluid contained in the extracellular matrix of transparent gelatinous glycosaminoglycans filling their bodies. This adaptation is likely a key factor for their survival by helping them to remain in the surface layer where food particles are the most abundant, while being transparent for predator avoidance. The ontogenetic change in buoyancy of eel eggs, leptocephali and glass eels likely enhances their larval survival, transport, and recruitment to terrestrial freshwater habitats.     

Modified clean-up for PBDD,PBDF and PBDE with an active carbon column--its application to sediments

A clean-up method for polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PBDDs), dibenzofurans (PBDFs) and diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was modified using combinations of multi-layered silica gel, Florisil and active carbon columns. By using active carbon column chromatography in the final procedure, PBDEs were well separated from PBDD/Fs in an elution test with reference standards. We report the application of this method to sediment samples taken from industrialized areas in Japan. These sediments contained PBDEs ranging in concentration from 13 to 2394 pg/g, dry wt. PBDEs did not interfere with the quantification of PBDD/Fs. In addition, PBDEs found in the PBDD/F fraction did not interfere with the identification of PBDFs using the HRGC/HRMS separation method. Some 2,3,7,8-tetra- to hexabrominated dioxins and furans were also detected in the sediment samples.     

Beneficial utilization of a tuna processing by-product as fish-feed additive

During tuna processing for human consumption, the fish are initially boiled in water, creating ~7000 tons of wastewater a year in Tosashimizu City, Japan. The wastewater (tuna broth; TB) is rich in free amino acids and peptides; therefore, we investigated two methods of utilizing it beneficially. In experiment 1, crude TB was used as a growth enhancer for two farmed species, juvenile yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) and red sea bream (Pagrus major). Juveniles of both species, fed commercial extruded pellets mixed with 300 mL TB, showed significantly better growth than the unsupplemented control group. In experiment 2, concentrated TB was used as a dietary ingredient for juvenile yellowtail to improve palatability and growth. Dietary preferences and growth were rated as follows: fish meal diet > soy protein concentrate (SPC) + TB diet > SPC + krill meal diet > SPC diet. The beneficial effects of TB as a dietary supplement were evident. Crude TB enhanced juvenile growth at minimal cost. Concentrated TB requires processing, with associated costs; however, it proved to be a valuable fish-feed supplement because of its high palatability and growth-promoting effect. The utilization of TB also contributes to reducing the environmental impact of fish wastewater.     

Respiratory uptake kinetics of neutral hydrophobic organic chemicals in a marine benthic fish, Pseudopleuronectes yokohamae

We investigated the respiratory uptake kinetics of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organohalogen pesticides (OCPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabrominated diphenyl ether (BDE #47) in a marine benthic fish, Pseudopleuronectes yokohamae. The respiratory uptake efficiencies (E_W) of the chemicals, of which there have been no reports for the majority of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), were obtained by measuring the respiratory uptake rate constants (k₁) and the oxygen consumption rates of fish. Fish were exposed to water in which these chemicals were dissolved at environmentally relevant concentrations for 28 d, followed by 168 d of depuration in clean seawater. The k₁ and E_W values for 99 compounds were obtained, and they ranged from 2000 to 42 000 L kg-lipid⁻¹ d⁻¹ and from 0.060 to 1.3, respectively. The E_W values of the chemicals, except for PAHs, tended to increase with increasing values of the log octanol–water partition coefficients (K_OW) of the chemicals up to a log K_OW of 5. For log K_OW in the range 3–5, the E_W values in this study were much lower than those in a published study (about one-third). As a result of analysis by a two-phase resistance model, the resistance of transport rates to the lipid phase in this study was lower than was the case in the published study. These findings indicate that the E_W predicted by the published study for log K_OW in the range 3–5 may differ among fish species and water temperature, and further study is needed.     

Tritium concentrations in the atmospheric environment at Rokkasho, Japan before the final testing of the spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plant

This study aimed at obtaining background tritium concentrations in precipitation and air at Rokkasho where the first commercial spent nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in Japan has been under construction. Tritium concentration in monthly precipitation during fiscal years 2001-2005 had a seasonal variation pattern which was high in spring and low in summer. The tritium concentration was higher than that observed at Chiba City as a whole. The seasonal peak concentration at Rokkasho was generally higher than that at Chiba City, while the baseline concentrations of both were similar. The reason for the difference may be the effect of air mass from the Asian continent which is considered to have high tritium concentration. Atmospheric tritium was operationally separated into HTO, HT and hydrocarbon (CH₃T) fractions, and the samples collected every 3 d-14 d during fiscal year 2005 were analyzed for these fractions. The HTO concentration as radioactivity in water correlated well with that in the precipitation samples. The HT concentration was the highest among the chemical forms analyzed, followed by the HTO and CH₃T concentrations. The HT and CH₃T concentrations did not have clear seasonal variation patterns. The HT concentration followed the decline previously reported by Mason and Östlund with an apparent half-life of 4.8 y. The apparent and environmental half-lives of CH₃T were estimated as 9.2 y and 36.5 y, respectively, by combining the present data with literature data. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change used the atmospheric lifetime of 12 y for CH₄ to estimate global warming in its 2007 report. The longer environmental half-life of CH₃T suggested its supply from other sources than past nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere.     

Biologically induced Po emission from fresh water

Behavior of Po in fresh waters was examined in laboratory culture experiments using fresh water collected from a small pool, Xi river and Xiqing lake, showing formation of volatile Po compounds followed by emission to air. Addition of tryptone to the fresh water cultures increased the emission of Po considerably along with a growth of microorganisms, suggesting a connection of chemoheterotrophs to Po emission. Participation of photoautotrophs was also considered because Po emission was increased when NaHCO3 was added to the fresh water cultures. The emission behavior of Po and S in these experiments appeared in different ways. The quantity of Po emitted was comparable to the previous culture experiments (Momoshima, Song, Osaki & Maeda, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 2956-2960, 2001) in which artificial culture medium containing 3% NaCl was used and inoculated with sea sediment extract. The biological support for Po emission, thus, would be a general phenomenon in fresh water as well as a seawater environment and is possibly a source for atmospheric Po.