A health risk assessment for fluoride in Central Europe

Like many elements, fluorine (which generally occurs in nature as fluoride) is beneficial to human health in trace amounts, but can be toxic in excess. The links between low intakes of fluoride and dental protection are well known; however, fluoride is a powerful calcium-seeking element and can interfere with the calcified structure of bones and teeth in the human body at higher concentrations causing dental or skeletal fluorosis. One of the main exposure routes is via drinking water and the World Health Organisation currently sets water quality guidelines for the element. In Central Europe, groundwater resources that exceed the guideline value of 1.5 mg l⁻¹ are widespread and effects on health of high fluoride in water have been reported. The aim of the current project was to develop a geographic information system (GIS) to aid the identification of areas where high-fluoride waters and fluorosis may be a problem; hence, where water treatment technologies should be targeted. The development of the GIS was based upon the collation and digitisation of existing information relevant to fluoride risk in Ukraine, Moldova, Hungary and Slovakia assembled for the first time in a readily accessible form. In addition, geochemistry and health studies to examine in more detail the relationships between high-fluoride drinking waters and health effects in the population were carried out in Moldova and Ukraine demonstrating dental fluorosis prevalence rates of 60–90% in adolescents consuming water containing 2–7 mg l⁻¹ fluoride.     

The anatomy of institutions: diagnosing the formation of legal rules

ABSTRACT

The explanation for the outcomes of environmental policies is often sought either in policy design or in the behaviour of street-level bureaucrats, thus tending to examine only one level of the policy process and neglecting its multi-level nested nature. Specifically, most of the studies omit addressing policy specification, which is located between design and adoption of primary legislation and the actions of public service workers. Considering the policy process as a multi-level nested process of shaping and carrying out legal rules, this paper uses an institutional economics approach and the institutional grammar tool for its analysis. Using the example of the Ukrainian soil protection policy, it examines the way legal rules are being co-created and the policy objectives shaped at the policy specification stage and discusses the implications for the discretion of street-level bureaucrats, behaviour of the policy target group, and soil protection. The results of the study reveal that the desired outcomes of the Ukrainian soil protection policy are undermined because many institutional statements written in primary legislation are not supported by the expectation of remedy in case of non-compliance and are therefore dysfunctional.     

浅谈乌克兰生态鉴定制度中的公众参与—兼谈对我国的启示

乌克兰实行的是与环境影响评价制度相类似的生态鉴定制度，该制度在制度设计的完备性、科学性、合理性，特别是保障公众参与环境管理和直接参与生态鉴定活动方面具有十分显著的特点。在简要介绍乌克兰生态鉴定制度的基础上，探讨其确保公众参与的几种途径，以期对我国相关的立法与实践有所启示。     

The Climate for Joint Implementation: Case Studies from Russia,Ukraine, and Poland

Joint implementation (JI) can provide flexibility in meetingKyoto Protocol commitments, and 44 nations have already participated inthe U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change – Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) pilot. Thispaper surveys JI policy and projects in three countries – Russia, Ukraine,and Poland – over the past five years and examines the effects of domesticinstitutions, foreign policy, and investment trends on JI in each country.The institutional and economic situation in the three nations differs greatly,and these distinctions have resulted in very different circumstances for AIJprojects, affecting both their number and scope. Poland has a well-definedset of rules and procedures for JI and its economy is quite strong. Ukrainehas not yet established criteria or clear procedures for AIJ project reviewsalthough it does have an Interagency Commission on Climate Change.Ukraine's economy declined by over 40% in the 1990s. Russia'seconomy has also declined, to a lesser extent. Russia does have aprocedure for reviewing AIJ projects, though it has temporarily halted thesereviews. Countries seeking JI investment can take several steps to improve thenumber and quality of AIJ projects that they receive. In the long term,governments can create macroeconomic stability and a solid legalinvestment basis to attract investment for JI and other areas. In the shortterm, however, governments can undertake several simple and inexpensivesteps to promote JI. Establishing clear rules and procedures for AIJprojects is an important step. So too are clearly delegating responsibilityfor AIJ project review and providing a single JI point of contact in thegovernment to which investors and project developers can turn. Gainingmore experience in implementing AIJ projects now is important preparationfor fully implementing the Kyoto Protocol beginning in 2008.