Urban planning and sustainable development under transitional economy: a case study of Guangzhou

There are always conflicts between the need for conservation and economic growth in the developing countries. Planning plays a primary role in balancing these conflicts. This is particularly obvious in Chinese cities since China adopted its open door policy in 1978. Foreign investment has been a major driving force for rapid growth of the Chinese economy. Planners in China have been facing the dilemma of protecting the natural environment on the one hand while, on the other hand, supporting the overall national goal of attracting foreign investment to maintain continuous economic growth. The planning system in China, which has been largely based on a planned economy, soon found itself handicapped in safeguarding the environment from rapid industrialization and urbanization fostered by market forces. This paper takes Guangzhou as an example to study challenges to the planning system in Chinese cities in the past two decades of rapid economic growth and urbanization. By means of a case study on an industrial development within a protected orchard area in Guangzhou, this study illustrates the conflict between the need for rural conservation and the pressure for economic development in the Chinese cities. In particular, it analyzes the pressures on the present urban planning system in China in terms of the following categories: the emergence of private investors in urban development; the goal of pursuing a high economic growth rate; the implications of a transitional economy for urban planning; and the weakness of the present urban planning system. It concludes that the role of urban planning in China should change from simply providing guidelines on board land-use strategy, to a combination of a strategic plan with specific development control laws at the operational level. Finally, some recommendations are suggested as to how to improve the planning system in China.     

The effectiveness of incentives in protected area management: An empirical analysis

Incentive approaches are believed to be indispensable for effective conservation and successful management in protected areas. However, the actual effectiveness of these approaches is still debatable. We carried out a case study in Wolong Biosphere Reserve (WBR), the largest reserve for the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), to evaluate the effectiveness of incentives. We obtained data from government documents and statistics, interviews and surveys on the employment status of public sector and industries. Results indicated that government-paid community-based conservation projects provided the most widespread and direct economic incentives. The conservation sector and several industries including hotels, hydropower and tourism have directly raised the employment level of local communities. The hotel industry, driven by the development of tourism, has been the most effective means of increasing local employment. However, the problem of immigrants attracted by the improved economic situation in WBR should be considered in the management plans. Suggestions for WBR management include development of quality ecotourism, vocational education for local young adults and new policies encouraging employment of local labour, both in the reserve and outside. Lessons learned from this research are constructive for the management of other protected areas.     

A GIS-based model for rating natural protection areas according to natural protection priorities

There has been a major urban shift of population in Turkey over the last century. Most people lived in rural areas until 1960, but now more than half live in urban areas. This trend has continued over the last 20 years, as families moved further away from city centres to find houses in the country, and this has caused land use to change rapidly. In decision-making studies to protect nature areas, rating and assessment of ecological data by scientific verification is difficult due to the huge volume and diversity of data. Therefore, the search for the most suitable and applicable method to achieve physical planning based on ecological understanding has been sought. The necessity for numerous parameters to be taken into account has stimulated the use of geographic information systems (GIS). This study assesses the usefulness of a GIS-based model in the protected area of Kaynaklar County, to the south of the city of Izmir. Existing cultural and natural land-use types, as well as soil, hydrologic, geologic and geomorphologic data layers (future classes) were gathered from field observation and using Landsat and IKONOS satellite images, and transferred to a database according to GIS rules. Index values were determined by taking impact on attributes of natural protection as a priority and these were attached to each feature class. Layers of data were merged by spatial intersection methods and new polygons were created for both cultural and natural features. A three-grade final map of the study area was generated using total index values of each new polygon.     

Impact of community-based approaches to wildlife management: case study of the CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe

The objective of this study was to elicit community perceptions on the effectiveness of the CAMPFIRE programme, a community initiative, designed to benefit rural communities in Gonono ward in the Zambezi valley. Five villages and 76 respondents were selected from the ward using simple random sampling. Data collection included a structured questionnaire administered to households, semi-structured interviews with key informants, such as chiefs, headmen and local council staff, transect walks and participant observations. The results of the study revealed that, although the CAMPFIRE concept has been instrumental in creation of employment and infrastructure, the local community considers that no significant changes have occurred to their livelihoods. The findings suggest that the current model of wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe is not promoting total community participation. Future models need to focus on total involvement and independence from government structures. However, this can only happen when there is sufficient capacity building in communities on a wide number of issues, including general management, to ensure long-term sustainability.     

Changing face of polyculture in the Darma and Johaar valleys,Pithoragarh, Kumaun Himalayas

Traditional modes of living or sustenance invariably relate to immediate and surrounding resources. Traditional people use many plant resources and have developed subtle and innovative uses for them in order to obtain maximum benefit. Traditional crop varieties and races that evolved over time through trial and error, not only provide basic nutritional requirements, but also food security. While the effects of the green revolution are conspicuous in the lower Himalayas, they are less visible in the study region, the Darma and Johaar valleys in the Kumaun Himalayas. Loss of crop biodiversity has taken place over the years, principally and inadvertently related to changing lifestyle and closure of traditional trade with Tibet after the 1962 Sino-Indian war. Added to this, is a growing demand for medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), principally Jambu (Allium stracheyii) and caraway (Carum carvi), whose acreage has increased with the concomitant decline in area under the traditional crops. In addition, the recent discovery of Yar tsa Gumba (Cordyceps sinensis) in the alpine zones of their summer homes has reduced people's interest in sowing, rearing and caring for traditional crops, viz. beans, potatoes, amaranth, whose growing season coincides with the harvesting season of Yar tsa Gumba. The present study attempts to show the causal factors behind the loss in crop biodiversity, as well as the changing lifestyle of these traditional people, vis a vis the changes in polyculture.     

Decentralization and people's participation in conservation: a comparative study from the Western Terai of Nepal

Nepal formally embarked on decentralized participatory conservation programmes in 1990. To assess who participates in and benefits from such programmes, stratified random questionnaire surveys of 234 households and interviews with 29 user group chairs were conducted in the buffer zones of two protected areas of the Nepalese Terai: Bardia National Park and Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. The Poisson regression shows that gender, education, household affluence, and conservation attitudes were significant predictors of people's participation in decentralized conservation programmes, while family size, ethnicity and resource dependency were not. The benefits of participation outweighed the costs based on respondents' estimates. The performance of grassroots organizations and levels of participation were correlated. Nepal's decentralized participatory conservation has achieved efficiency, relative equity and effectiveness to some extent. Yet the central government should devolve more power to local communities to sustain the achievements as well as to provide more equitable benefits to residents to ensure the effectiveness and sustainability of conservation programmes.     

Yar tsa Gumba (Cordyceps sinensis): A call for its sustainable exploitation

Yar tsa Gumba, the local name for Cordyceps sinensis, is an entomophilus fungus in the order Hypocreales and family Scolecosporaceae, found primarily in alpine and subalpine regions, from 3200 to 4000 m asl. The fungus is parasitic on caterpillars, primarily those in the genus Hepialus. Studies on Cordyceps sinensis indicate that the fungus may improve liver function, reduce cholesterol, adjust protein metabolism, inhibit lung carcinoma and treat aging disorders. In the last five years, since it was found in parts of Garhwal and Kumaun Himalaya, massive exploitation has occurred, leading to a drastic decrease in wild populations. This paper presents results of an exploration carried out on the fungus at several important sites, the mode of trafficking and suggested policy initiative for its sustainable exploitation.     

Non-Timber forest products: Conservation status and management priorities in the community managed forests of Andhra Pradesh,South India

Primary surveys were conducted in 20 villages and an equal number of community managed forests (CMFs) of two districts, Adilabad and Chittoor in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. The interviews conducted with 216 respondents listed a total of 22 and 23 non-timber forest products (NTFP) from Adilabad and Chittoor districts, respectively, of which 15 species were common to both study districts. Eight of these NTFPs, including, Sterculia urens, Thysanolena maxima, Sapindus emerginatus, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pongamia pinnata, Schleichera oleosa, Azadirachta indica and Diospyros melenoxylon were collected for commercial purposes. The vegetation survey was conducted in a total of 240 sample plots in 20 CMFs, and found 15 NTFP species from Adilabad and 18 NTFP species from Chittoor. The density of NTFP trees in Adilabad was 52 trees/ha, as against an overall tree density of 278 trees/ha, while in Chittoor it was only 28 trees/ha as against an overall density of 110 trees/ha. The regeneration density of NTFP species was, however, higher in Chittoor. Some of the NTFP species, prioritized for conservation, included Sterculia urens, Tamarindus indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Strychnos nuxvomica, S. potatorum and Anogeissus latifolia.