The Impact of NTFP Sales on Rural Households’ Cash Income in India’s Dry Deciduous Forest

In recent years, researchers and policy makers have recognized that nontimber forest products (NTFPs) extracted from forests by rural people can make a significant contribution to their well-being and to the local economy. This study presents and discusses data that describe the contribution of NTFPs to cash income in the dry deciduous forests of Orissa and Jharkhand, India. In its focus on cash income, this study sheds light on how the sale of NTFPs and products that use NTFPs as inputs contribute to the rural economy. From analysis of a unique data set that was collected over the course of a year, the study finds that the contribution of NTFPs to cash income varies across ecological settings, seasons, income level, and caste. Such variation should inform where and when to apply NTFP forest access and management policies.     

Rain forest dwellers' livelihoods: income generation,household wealth and NTFP sales,a case study from Xishuangbanna,SW China

Through annual in-depth household questionnaire interviews of 60% of households in Daka and Baka villages from 1998 to 2004, we explored wealth-related differences and similarities in the sale of NTFPs of tropical rain forest fringe dwellers in Xishuangbanna, SW China. Contribution of different NTFPs to cash income and different seasonal access to NTFPs between Baka and Daka were analysed. There were significant differences in income and role of NTFPs per household between Baka and Daka related to different access to: NTFPs in forests, labour and market sales in different seasons. In Baka, the ranking of NTFP income was: fungi, wild vegetables, bamboo shoot in 2000 and 2001. Differences in gender and generational involvement in NTFP sales was also examined. For example, households without a son, as well as those with a female householder depended more on income from NTFPs and less on income from rubber than other households. Resource use patterns between relatively wealthy and poor households were also analysed. Wealthy households sold 2.50 ± 0.50 types while poor households sold 2.08 ± 0.26 NTFPs. The Gini coefficient of gross income per household for Baka in recent years was 0.393, increasing to 0.414 without NTFPs. The Gini coefficient of gross income for Daka in recent years was 0.291, increasing to 0.292 without NTFPs, showing the different role of NTFPs in mitigating wealth inequality in the two villages.     

Effects of Harvest of Nontimber Forest Products and Ecological Differences between Sites on the Demography of African Mahogany

Abstract: The demographic impacts of harvesting nontimber forest products (NTFP) have been increasingly studied because of reports of potentially unsustainable harvest. Nevertheless, our understanding of how plant demographic response to harvest is altered by variation in ecological conditions, which is critical for developing realistic sustainable‐use plans, is limited. We built matrix population models to test whether and how variation in ecological conditions affects population responses to harvest. In particular, we examined the effect of bark and foliage harvest on the demography of populations of African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) in two contrasting ecological regions of Benin, West Africa. K. senegalensis bark and foliage harvest significantly reduced its stochastic population growth rates, but ecological differences between regions had a greater effect on population growth rates than did harvest. The effect of harvest on population growth rates (Δλ) was slightly stronger in the moist than in the drier region. Life‐table response experiments revealed that the mechanism by which harvesting reduced λ differed between ecological regions. Lowered stasis (persistence) of larger life stages lead to a reduction in λ in the drier region, whereas lowered growth of all life stages lowered λ in moist region. Potential strategies to increase population growth rates should include decreasing the proportion of individuals harvested, promoting harvester‐owned plantations of African mahogany, and increasing survival and growth by promoting no‐fire zones in gallery forests. Our results show how population responses to harvest of NTFP may be altered by ecological differences across sites and emphasize the importance of monitoring populations over the climatic range in which they occur to develop more realistic recommendations for conservation.     

Rural households’ livelihoods diversification through termite utilization in depressed region of Zimbabwe

This study sought to examine the utility of termites to rural households in depressed regions of Bikita, Zimbabwe. Colonialism and its spread of European culture had viewed entomophagy with contempt resulting in reduced utilization and consumption of termites in most colonies. In our quest to understand how people in depressed regions utilized termites, both quantitative and qualitative methodologies were employed. Questionnaires and in-depth interviews were used to gather data during field work. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used in recruiting respondents. Excel and content analysis were used in data presentation and analysis. Results revealed that dampwood and drywood termites are climatic indicators for the rural communal farmers, a low-cost technology in weather forecasting. Subterrain and mold builders provide manure, relish, and are medicinal in nature. They are traded for income generation, and as for the poor, harvesting, processing, storage, and marketing is cost effective. Though considered nostalgic foods, most respondents highlighted that selling termites complimented other off-farm livelihood activities. Termite consumption and utilization provide a sustainable way for livelihood diversification in depressed regions and has partly addressed problems of food insecurity.     

非木质林产品生产的投入要素及影响因素实证分析

在南方集体林区,非木质林产品资源成为农户增收的主要来源之一,但在农户非木质林产品经营中需要考虑投入要素的有效性以及生产资源如何合理配置问题。论文以临安市山核桃产业和仙居县杨梅产业为例,分别选取两个县(市)共167户林农2009年横截面数据为样本,在农户微观层面运用C-D生产函数,实证分析了投入要素及影响因素在非木质林产品生产中的作用。结果表明,农药化肥投入、地域因素都对两个地区非木质林产品生产有显著影响,而劳动力投入和林业劳动力人均种植面积因素则只对山核桃生产有显著影响。笔者认为需要通过积极推广农户从事非木质林产品的经营,重视农药化肥生产资料投入以及促使劳动力季节性回流等措施促进非木质林产品经营。     

Utility of non-timber forest products in a small watershed in the Indian Himalayas: the threat of its degradation

This study discusses the use of non-timber forest products (NTFP), especially medicinal plants, by traditional communities in the western Himalaya, India. The great socio-cultural diversity and ecological complexity of the region is also matched by an unusually large variety of forest species being used. A wide range of plants, comprising herbs, shrubs and trees are used for different domestic purposes, such as food, fodder, materials for construction and handicrafts. Wild plants also play a vital role in providing primary health care in the region. In earlier times, forest products were harvested only on a subsistence basis. However, in recent decades, factors such as rising market demand, increasing population pressure, and changes in socio-cultural and socio-economic values have led to overharvesting. It is now estimated that most of the useful wild herbs in the region are overexploited and some of them have become locally extinct. Government forestry policies have, in the past, exclusively emphasized plantation and management of trees and have, unfortunately, ignored non-timber products, as these are usually of comparatively lesser economic importance. However, it is suggested that proper management of NTFP will help upgrade rural economies. Recommended policies to this effect include empowerment of local communities and their involvement in development plans as well as strengthening of indigenous knowledge. To foster sustainable use of NTFP, the following steps are also suggested: integrating traditional and scientific knowledge; safeguarding regeneration potential; cultivating wild species, making appropriate changes to extraction processes used; and establishing more transparency in prices and marketing channels.     

A Framework for Assessing Supply‐Side Wildlife Conservation

Market‐based, supply‐side interventions such as domestication, cultivation, and wildlife farming have been proposed as legal substitutes for wild‐collected plants and animals in the marketplace. Based on the literature, we devised a list of the conditions under which supply‐side interventions may yield positive conservation outcomes. We applied it to the trade of the orchid Rhynchostylis gigantea, a protected ornamental plant. We conducted a survey of R. gigantea at Jatujak Market in Bangkok, Thailand. Farmed (legal) and wild (illegal, protected) specimens of R. gigantea were sold side‐by‐side at market. These results suggest farmed specimens are not being substituted for wild plants in the marketplace. For any given set of physical plant characteristics (size, condition, flowers), the origin of the plants (wild vs. farmed) did not affect price. For all price classes, farmed plants were of superior quality to wild‐collected plants on the basis of most physical variables. These results suggest wild and farmed specimens represent parallel markets and may not be substitutable goods. Our results with R. gigantea highlight a range of explanations for why supply‐side interventions may lack effectiveness, for example, consumer preferences for wild‐collected products and low financial incentives for farming. Our results suggest that market‐based conservation strategies may not be effective by themselves and may be best utilized as supplements to regulation and education. This approach represents a broad, multidisciplinary evaluation of supply‐side interventions that can be applied to other plant and animal species. Un Marco de Referencia para Evaluar la Oferta de la Conservación de Vida Silvestre     

Edge-Related Variation in Medicinal and Other "Useful" Wild Plants of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Abstract:  Harvesting of wild plants for nontimber uses is widespread in the tropics, but its impact is usually quantified only for one or a few species at a time. Thus, forest managers are never clear about how well their efforts are protecting such plants. We quantified abundance and edge-related variation in 91 species of useful wild plants commonly harvested by communities around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda, to evaluate the effect of their harvest. Forty percent of these species were harvested exclusively for medicines, 22% for weaving, and 24% for other uses. Fourteen percent were harvested for combinations of uses. Plants were surveyed around the entire periphery of the park transects that extended out 1 km into the forest interior from the edge. Analyses of edge and interior distribution were controlled for effects of topography. Individually, nine (10%) species were very rare, occurring in <0.5% of the plots searched. Of the remaining 82 species, most (50%) decreased significantly away from the park boundary, whereas 4.9% increased and 45.1% showed no pronounced edge-related distributions. Rarer species were no more likely to be less abundant near the edge than commoner species. These results suggest that most plants used for nontimber purposes in BINP are not currently being harvested unsustainably. In this respect many of the species of useful wild plants we examined resembled animals commonly hunted in tropical forests for bushmeat because they increased in abundance in disturbed habitat. Conservation action should initially aim to understand what influences distributions of very rare species. Edge-based assessments of distributions may be valuable for revealing harvest impact on species of useful wild plants commonly harvested by people living around forest islands in the tropics.     

Non-Timber forest products: Conservation status and management priorities in the community managed forests of Andhra Pradesh,South India

Primary surveys were conducted in 20 villages and an equal number of community managed forests (CMFs) of two districts, Adilabad and Chittoor in the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. The interviews conducted with 216 respondents listed a total of 22 and 23 non-timber forest products (NTFP) from Adilabad and Chittoor districts, respectively, of which 15 species were common to both study districts. Eight of these NTFPs, including, Sterculia urens, Thysanolena maxima, Sapindus emerginatus, Dendrocalamus strictus, Pongamia pinnata, Schleichera oleosa, Azadirachta indica and Diospyros melenoxylon were collected for commercial purposes. The vegetation survey was conducted in a total of 240 sample plots in 20 CMFs, and found 15 NTFP species from Adilabad and 18 NTFP species from Chittoor. The density of NTFP trees in Adilabad was 52 trees/ha, as against an overall tree density of 278 trees/ha, while in Chittoor it was only 28 trees/ha as against an overall density of 110 trees/ha. The regeneration density of NTFP species was, however, higher in Chittoor. Some of the NTFP species, prioritized for conservation, included Sterculia urens, Tamarindus indica, Phyllanthus emblica, Strychnos nuxvomica, S. potatorum and Anogeissus latifolia.     

Sustainability of wild plant use in the Andean Community of South America

Overexploitation is the second biggest driver of global plant extinction. Meanwhile, useful plant species are vital to livelihoods across the world, with global conservation efforts increasingly applying the concept of ‘conservation-through-use.’ However, successfully balancing conservation and biodiversity use remains challenging. We reviewed literature on the sustainability of wild-collected plant use across the countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia—a region of global importance for its biological and cultural richness. After applying defined search terms and a two-stage screening process, 68 articles were reviewed. The numbers which reported sustainable, unsustainable, or context-dependent outcomes were relatively even, but national differences emerged. Through narrative synthesis, we identified five key, reoccurring themes: plant biology; land tenure; knowledge, resource, and capacity; economics and market pressures; and institutional structures, policy, and legislation. Our results show the need for flexible, context-specific approaches and the importance of collaboration, with bottom-up management and conservation methods involving local communities and traditional ecological knowledge often proving most effective. Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13280-021-01529-7.