Resembling a Viper: Implications of Mimicry for Conservation of the Endangered Smooth Snake

The phenomenon of Batesian mimicry, where a palatable animal gains protection against predation by resembling an unpalatable model, has been a core interest of evolutionary biologists for 150 years. An extensive range of studies has focused on revealing mechanistic aspects of mimicry (shared education and generalization of predators) and the evolutionary dynamics of mimicry systems (co‐operation vs. conflict) and revealed that protective mimicry is widespread and is important for individual fitness. However, according to our knowledge, there are no case studies where mimicry theories have been applied to conservation of mimetic species. Theoretically, mimicry affects, for example, frequency dependency of predator avoidance learning and human induced mortality. We examined the case of the protected, endangered, nonvenomous smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) that mimics the nonprotected venomous adder (Vipera berus), both of which occur in the Åland archipelago, Finland. To quantify the added predation risk on smooth snakes caused by the rarity of vipers, we calculated risk estimates from experimental data. Resemblance of vipers enhances survival of smooth snakes against bird predation because many predators avoid touching venomous vipers. Mimetic resemblance is however disadvantageous against human predators, who kill venomous vipers and accidentally kill endangered, protected smooth snakes. We found that the effective population size of the adders in Åland is very low relative to its smooth snake mimic (28.93 and 41.35, respectively).Because Batesian mimicry is advantageous for the mimic only if model species exist in sufficiently high numbers, it is likely that the conservation program for smooth snakes will fail if adders continue to be destroyed. Understanding the population consequences of mimetic species may be crucial to the success of endangered species conservation. We suggest that when a Batesian mimic requires protection, conservation planners should not ignore the model species (or co‐mimic in Mullerian mimicry rings) even if it is not itself endangered. Implications of mimicry for Conservation of the endangered smooth snake     

Economic assessment of managing processionary moth in pine forests: a case-study in Portugal

This paper assesses the private and social profitability of current strategies for managing processionary moth (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) in Portuguese pine forests, looking at economic and environmental costs and benefits. Costs include the expenses for forest treatment and the social costs of threats to human health (dermatitis amongst others); benefits are assessed in terms of both revenue and social benefits such as carbon fixation and recreation. The evaluation was done using Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) as an analytical framework. While this tool is currently applied to forest and environmental assessment and specific applications to pest management strategies are to be found in agricultural economics, rather few attempts have been made in the field of forest pest management. In order to assess and compare with--without options, a case-study was analysed for the Setúbal Peninsula, south of Lisbon, an area where extensive stands of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) grow. The exercise has shown that CBA can be a valuable tool for assessing the economic and social profitability of pest management. The results demonstrate that the loss of revenues in the no-management option is not sufficient to make pest management profitable for private forest owners in the short-term. Conversely, a social profit is gained as pest management minimizes health risks for humans and avoids possible recreational losses.     

Woodland restoration in Scotland: ecology, history, culture, economics, politics and change

In the latter half of the 20th century, native pine woodlands in Scotland were restricted to small remnant areas within which there was little regeneration. These woodlands are important from a conservation perspective and are habitat for numerous species of conservation concern. Recent developments have seen a large increase in interest in woodland restoration and a dramatic increase in regeneration and woodland spread. The proximate factor enabling this regeneration is a reduction in grazing pressure from sheep and, particularly, deer. However, this has only been possible as a result of a complex interplay between ecological, political and socio-economic factors. We are currently seeing the decline of land management practices instituted 150-200 years ago, changes in land ownership patterns, cultural revival, and changes in societal perceptions of the Scottish landscape. These all feed into the current move to return large areas of the Scottish Highlands to tree cover. I emphasize the need to consider restoration in a multidisciplinary framework which accounts not just for the ecology involved but also the historical and cultural context.     

Coastal landscape preference evaluation: A comparison among tourists in Greece

An evaluation of coastal landscape of pine forest in Greece by summer visitors of various nationalities was carried out. The visual preferences for a set of landscape, represented in photographs, expressed by these various nationality groups were compared. The subjects used in this research came from Greece, Germany, Italy, France, Great Britain, Austria, Yugoslavia, and Scandinavian countries. The findings show that there is an agreement over the basic preference, but, nevertheless, there are differences of opinion between the nationality groups that might be attributed to cultural influences and the effect of being familiar with their own environments. Since coastal landscape plays an important role in the tourist industry, these findings could be very useful to policy-making agencies.     

Acid dissolution methods for heavy metals determination in pine needles

Microwave digestion procedures using HNO₃, HNO₃+H₂O₂, HNO₃+HClO₄, HF mixtures and dry ashing with HF were investigated for heavy metals analysis by either inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) or ICP-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in pine needles. The HF digestion procedures gave about 1.5 times higher values than a mixture of HNO₃+H₂O₂ alone. For Ti determination in needles, the HF procedure using dry ashing is thus recommended. The mean concentrations amounted to 900 mg/kg for Fe and 21.8 mg/kg for Ti in needles collected at an area polluted by a stainless steel works. Those concentrations were 10.6 and 4.3 times higher than in needles collected at an area nearby a pulp mill complex (84.5 mg/kg Fe and 5.0 mg/kg Ti).     

Lichens as indicators of a perturbation/stability gradient in the Asperillo dunes, SW spain

In the asperillo dune system, Southwest Spain, lichen vegetation covering the dune sand, has a low species diversity but is an important component of the perennial vegetation, providing stability, nutrients, and moisture to the soil layer. The Asperillo dunes harbour (1) natural ecosystems, (2) disturbed systems affected by forestry activities where the natural vegetation is eliminated, and (3) pine forest resulting from afforestation withPinus pinea since the end of the 1940s where the composition and abundance of the lichen flora has been drastically changed. Our hypothesis was that the lichen species composition and distribution are influenced by the type and period of human intervention. To test this hypothesis a 1.2 km × 1.1 km area, which includes zones with different degrees of conservation and perturbation, consisting of five different habitats, was selected: well preservedJuniperus woodland,Pinus pinea plantations with dense scrub, dense scrub,P. pinea plantations cleared from scrub, and pioneer scrub in recent pine afforestation. In each area, randomly located 5m × 5 m homogeneous plots were sampled. In each plot the cover of shrub and lichen species was recorded. The first results show that lichen cover is higher in the most preserved areas,Cladonia mediterranea being the dominant species under theJuniperus phoenicea canopy. The lichen community changes in composition and abundance depending on the time elapsed since the last perturbation.     

白眉蝮蛇毒精氨酸酯酶对CHL细胞增殖抑制和染色体畸变的影响

研究了蝮蛇清栓酶的有效成分精氨酸酯酶体外对中国仓鼠肺成纤维细胞 (CHL)增殖和染色体畸变的影响 .精氨酸酯酶的浓度以酶活单位U表示 .细胞增殖抑制试验和染色体畸变试验都用两种方法 :直接法和代谢活性法 .精氨酸酯酶设 3个浓度 :1.0× 10 -3 U /mL ,0 .5× 10 -3 U /mL和 0 .2 5× 10 -3U/mL .其中最高浓度比临床治疗浓度高约10 0倍 .细胞增殖抑制试验采用细胞贴壁培养 ,乙醇固定 ,结晶紫染色 ,单层细胞密度计测定细胞密度 .染色体畸变试验采用给药后 2 4h和 48h收集中期分裂细胞 ,低渗固定 ,制片 ,Giemsa染色 ,观察 10 0个中期分裂细胞的染色体结构异常及多倍体的出现率 .试验结果表明 ,精氨酸酯酶在上述浓度对CHL细胞的增殖没有抑制作用 ,对CHL细胞的染色体结构也没有影响 .表 2参 10     

Phytotoxicities of fluoranthene and phenanthrene deposited on needle surfaces of the evergreen conifer, Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc.)

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been widely studied with respect to their carcinogenic and mutagenic effects on animals and human cells. Phenanthrene (PHE) and fluoranthene (FLU) effects on the needle photosynthetic traits of 2-year-old Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora Sieb. et. Zucc.) seedlings were investigated. Three months after fumigation of foliage with solutions containing these PAHs (10 microM each), FLU had negative effects on net photosynthesis at near-saturating irradiance, stomatal conductance, initial chlorophyll fluorescence, and the contents of total chlorophyll, magnesium, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco) of current-year needles. PHE had similar negative effects to FLU but in lesser magnitude. The effects of the PAHs were mitigated by the addition of an OH-radical scavenger (mannitol) into the PAH solutions. PAHs deposited on the surface of pine needles may induce the generation of reactive oxygen species in the photosynthetic apparatus, a manner closely resembling the action of the herbicide paraquat.     

Biodiversity of plants and soils in landscapes adjacent to the Buzuluk Pine Forest

The influence of the Buzuluk Pine Forest on biodiversity of plants and soil properties in adjacent territories has been studied. The results show that in the immediate vicinity of the pine forest, under the influence of the relatively mild and humid mesoclimate, natural phytocenoses are dominated by mesophytic species. Biodiversity reaches a peak at a distance of 17–18 km from the forest, which is explained by the presence of both mesophytes and xerophytes in the same phytocenosis. The same zone is also characterized by the maximum diversity of soil properties and structural complexity of the soil cover. Grass communities on ordinary chernozems with a homogeneous soil cover, typical of the steppe zone, are formed at greater distances from the forest.     

蛇毒制剂抗肿瘤活性和机理的研究进展

蛇毒含多种酶类和多种不同生理、药理活性蛋白,蛇毒中可分离出心脏毒素、细胞毒素、组分C等,毒性主要由破坏细胞膜而实现.蛇毒制剂治疗癌症有较好的效果,近年来国内外学者也越来越重视蛇毒制剂抗肿瘤机理的研究.蛇毒制剂在体内外的抗癌作用可能与蛇毒能调整多种抗氧化酶的活性,降低自由基的水平相关,另外眼镜蛇蛇毒因子可以通过免疫反应在细胞表面激活补体系统溶解肿瘤细胞,最近的研究还发现蛇毒制剂抑制肿瘤与其诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡有密切关系.