Group size,heterogeneity and collective action outcomes: Evidence from community forestry in Nepal

In the context of ongoing theoretical debate on the role of group size and heterogeneity in affecting collective action outcomes, this study analyzed associations of group size, and intra-group heterogeneities arising from ethnic, educational and livelihood-related differences with conditions of selected forests managed (formally or informally) by local user groups in the middle hills of Nepal. Four biological variables, basal area of trees, density of trees, density of saplings and richness of plant species, were chosen to represent the condition of the forests. The findings show significant differences in biological condition of the forests managed by different size forest user groups and levels of ethnic, educational and livelihood-related heterogeneities. These differences, however, are inconsistent across the dependent variables representing forest condition, indicating that they were not necessarily caused by the size of the user groups or the group heterogeneities, but could be the result of other factors, such as the history of forest land use and degradation, composition of tree species and institutional arrangements governing the forests.     

Theoretical foundations of learning processes for sustainable development

Social-ecological systems are co-evolving systems. Of particular relevance are here: (1) co-evolution of the environment and governance, (2) co-evolution of technology and governance, and (3) co-evolution of human behaviour and culture. The co-evolutionary perspective has helped to understand the processes which led to the present unsustainable situation. This paper highlights different types of learning processes which occur in co-evolving systems and explores learning processes on the macro-, meso- and micro-levels for moving onto more sustainable paths. While the literature in environmental management, ecological economics or sustainability science often refers to the need for learning processes, the conceptualisation of learning and the link to learning theories is weak. This paper draws on learning theories from psychology, social psychology, education, evolutionary economics and political science and offers a first step toward theoretical foundations of learning processes for sustainable development. An improved understanding of these learning processes will provide important clues for policy recommendations on multiple scales.     

Strategic Environmental Assessment and the World Bank Group

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is mandated by an increasing number of countries and agencies. SEA has become a reliable and useful tool in reducing environmental and social impacts of plans, policies and programmes. The main elements of SEA are outlined with examples. The status of SEA in the World Bank is discussed. The case is presented that the World Bank should apply SEA to country lending strategies, programme lending, technical assistance, and to its budget.     

Population dynamics,rural livelihoods and forest protection projects in Sub-Saharan Africa: experiences from Santa,Cameroon

The study examines mainstream efforts to rehabilitate and conserve forests in Cameroon, and concludes that technocratic blueprints will always flounder when they come face-to-face with the real world of complex human relations in poverty-stricken societies. These result from the failure to integrate concerns relating to rights, needs and priorities of rural communities, who are the local natural resource users. The paper argues that when rural livelihoods are affected negatively, the adjacent forest communities often respond in ways involving conflict, illegal exploitation of resources and apathy, which makes the realisation of conservation goals very remote. There is, therefore, need for a broader perspective that links environmental protection with human welfare. Consequently, the study advocates that Social Impact Assessment (SIA) be an integral part of such conservation projects if success is to be achieved.     

Why did the project fail to achieve its objectives in some villages? The experience of the Upland Settlement Project (USP) in Bangladesh

By sampling an upland settlement project (USP) village, this study examined why the project failed to achieve the planned objectives in some villages, and what livelihood strategies villagers (planters) have adopted to sustain their livelihoods. The paper uses data obtained by qualitative and quantitative methods. The USP was formulated with the objectives of settling 50 landless and marginal tribal families in a project village and introducing agroforestry and rubber plantations for short- and long-term socioeconomic development of planters, in a participatory manner. There are now only 15 planters in the project village and, although agroforestry has progressed well, only 30 to 40% of poor quality rubber trees remain. Planter participation in project activities was limited to wage labour, indicating that the USP failed to adequately achieve all its proposed objectives. In the face of project failure, planters have adopted diversified strategies to maintain their livelihoods. Several shortcomings caused failure of the project, such as the inability of project staff members to organize planters, failure to create awareness among planters about project benefits, lack of regular project money disbursement, sociocultural ignorance, and lack of social capital among planters. Recommendations are made for securing effective participation of local people to assure successful and sustainable project outcomes. Lessons learned will be helpful in formulating future development programmes in this country and elsewhere.     

The significance of social capital in local forest management in Laos: Overcoming latent conflict between local people and local forestry officials

Forest policies that devolve forest-use rights to local people have undergone development over the past few years in Laos. As collaboration between local people and forestry officials is seen as indispensable to effective and sustainable local forest management, the objective of this study is to clarify the issues pertinent to the resolution of latent conflict between these two stakeholders. The issues are examined by presenting two case studies in terms of forest management as perceived by local people and forestry officials; the first in a rich forest area and the second in a degraded forest. Issues relating to land and borders and social capital are identified as the most important in the degraded forest area, while social capital is a very important issue in the rich forest area. Our studies show that the problems of land and border issues in the degraded forest area were caused by an inappropriate resettlement policy. This can be interpreted as the mismanagement of social capital, and for effective local forest management it is very important to overcome problems of this nature. The effective use of social capital has so far been overlooked, however, in the establishment of collaborative forest governance at the local level.