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The socio-ecological model (SEM) links ecological factors with characteristics of social systems and allows predictions about
the relationships between resource distribution, type of competition and social organisation. It has been mainly applied to
group-living species but ought to explain variation in social organisation of solitary species as well. The aim of this study
was to test basic predictions of the SEM in two solitary primates, which differ in two characteristics of female association
patterns: (1) spatial ranging and (2) sleeping associations. Beginning in August 2002, we regularly (re-)captured and marked
individuals of sympatric populations of Madame Berthe's and grey mouse lemurs (Microcebus berthae, Microcebus murinus) in Kirindy Forest (Madagascar). We recorded data on spatial patterns, feeding and social behaviour by means of direct observation
of radio-collared females. The major food sources of M. berthae occurred in small dispersed patches leading to strong within-group scramble competition and over-dispersed females with a
low potential for female associations. In contrast, M. murinus additionally used patchily distributed, high-quality (large) resources facilitating within-group contest competition. The
combined influence of less strong within-group scramble and contest as well as between-group contest over non-food resources
allowed females of this species to cluster in space. Additionally, we experimentally manipulated the spatial distribution
of food sources and found that females adjusted their spatial patterns to food resource distribution. Thus, our results support
basic predictions of the SEM and demonstrated that it can also explain variation in social organisation of solitary foragers. 相似文献
2.
G. C. Eickwort J. M. Eickwort J. Gordon M. A. Eickwort W. T. Wcislo 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》1996,38(4):227-233
In the subalpine region of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, United States, Halictus rubicundus has a solitary life cycle, but it is social in other parts of its known range. The brood is protandrous, with a nearly equal
investment in the sexes. Productivity averages 6.5 offspring per foundress female, similar to the second brood of social nests
in New York, but less than the combined productivity of both New York broods. Leucophora sp. (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) is the principal cause of brood mortality in Colorado. Foundress females in about half the nests
survive until brood emerge as adults. Retention of these foundresses decreases offspring mortality by 68%. Comparable abilities
to express solitary behavior with a single brood may characterize other eusocial halictine lineages that have successfully
invaded high altitudes in the Rocky Mountains. The apparent inability to do this may help explain the absence of other eusocial
halictine bees and polistine wasps at high altitudes, despite their success at lower elevations in the same mountains. Presence
or absence of this ability may help explain latitudinal distributions of these lineages in North America. Holarctic distributions
of lineages with eusocial behavior can be explained by migration as solitary populations from Eurasia to North America across
Pleistocene Bering land bridges, with re-expression of double-brooded, eusocial behavior when the species then extended their
ranges southward in North America.
Received: 4 November 1994/Accepted after revision: 23 October 1995 相似文献
3.
When endoparasitoid wasps oviposit into hosts which have already been parasitized (= superparasitism), this results in potentially
lethal interlarval competition. For solitary species, the decision to lay additional eggs should therefore be based on the
probability of superparasite survival in any superparasitized host. In this study, in vitro contests staged between three larval instars of Venturia canescens Grav. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) reveal that the age difference between competitors affects the outcome of interlarval
competition. Three parameters were used to assess parasitoid performance: the number of fights initiated, the number of bites
inflicted, and the duration of each bite. When fighting takes place between two first instars, then both competitors were
found to be evenly matched. However, at greater age differences, first-instar competitors appeared to win more fights than
their larger second instar rivals. The advantage shown by younger competitors is most pronounced in contests staged between
first and third instar larvae. These findings are consistent with the increasingly high levels of conspecific superparasitism
shown by V. canescens in the first 5 days after initial host attack, suggesting that this parasitoid can deploy her use of deliberate superparasitism
in an adaptive way.
Received: 13 December 1995/Accepted after revision: 5 March 1996 相似文献
4.
Dominance relationships in solitary species may be an important factor in the maintenance of long-term, stable relationships
among territorial neighbors. We examined the mediation of intraspecific interactions in a solitary, territorial kangaroo rat,
Dipodomys heermanni, and tested whether unfamiliar kangaroo rats establish a dominance hierarchy and then decrease aggression and increase communication
(via footdrumming and sandbathing) after initial interactions and the establishment of a social structure. Results revealed
that both dominance hierarchies and familiarization with particular individuals are likely to mediate social interactions.
After only one pairing per dyad, an almost linear dominance hierarchy emerged, which became perfectly linear after a 90-min
familiarization period. During the course of subsequent interactions between dyad partners, fighting decreased and non-agonistic
communication increased. Dominant kangaroo rats sandbathed at higher rates than subordinates, possibly to deposit scent to
advertise competitive ability, whereas subordinate kangaroo rats footdrummed from inside the burrow, which seemed to indicate
an unwillingness to interact. We suggest the kangaroo rats use a conditional strategy when deciding to fight (be dominant)
or withdraw (be subordinate) by employing different modes to communicate status and minimize the potential risk of injury
during unnecessarily prolonged fights. 相似文献
5.
Bees are important pollinators for many flowering plants. Female bees are thought to be more effective pollinators than male
bees because they carry much more pollen than males. Males of some solitary bee species are known to patrol near flowers that
females visit. Because patrolling males visit flowers to mate or defend their territories, they may function as pollinators.
However, the significance of patrolling males to pollination has not been studied. We studied males of a solitary bee, Heriades fulvohispidus (Megachilidae), patrolling near flowers and visiting flowers that attracted nectar-feeding insects, including conspecifics,
on the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands. To test the hypothesis that patrolling male bees may function as pollen vectors, we compared
the frequency of visits by H. fulvohispidus to flowers of an endemic plant, Schima mertensiana (Theaceae); comparisons were made among flowers with a dead H. fulvohispidus, a dead beetle, a piece of plastic, and nothing (control flowers). Patrolling H. fulvohispidus more frequently visited flowers with a dead conspecific, a dead beetle, or a piece of plastic than the control flowers. Our
experiment demonstrates that nectar-feeding insects (including conspecifics and other insects) enhance the flower-visiting
frequency of patrolling H. fulvohispidus males on S. mertensiana flowers. Furthermore, we observed S. mertensiana pollen on patrolling males as well as females, suggesting that male bees may also function as pollen vectors. 相似文献
6.
Aliza le Roux Michael I. Cherry Lorenz Gygax Marta B. Manser 《Behavioral ecology and sociobiology》2009,63(8):1097-1107
Vigilance behaviour in gregarious species has been studied extensively, especially the relationship between individual vigilance
and group size, which is often negative. Relatively little is known about the effect of conspecifics on vigilance in non-obligate
social species or the influence of sociality itself on antipredator tactics. We investigated predator avoidance behaviour
in the yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata, a group-living solitary forager, and compared it with a sympatric group-living, group-foraging herpestid, the meerkat, Suricata suricatta. In yellow mongooses, the presence of conspecifics during foraging—an infrequent occurrence—reduced their foraging time and
success and increased individual vigilance, contrary to the classical group-size effect. Comparing the two herpestids, sociality
did not appear to affect overt vigilance or survival rates but influenced general patterns of predator avoidance. Whereas
meerkats relied on communal vigilance, costly vigilance postures, and auditory warnings against danger, yellow mongooses avoided
predator detection by remaining close to safe refuges and increasing “low-cost” vigilance, which did not interfere with foraging.
We suggest that foraging group size in herpestids is constrained by species-distinct vigilance patterns, in addition to habitat
and prey preference. 相似文献
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