The outcome of in-vitro contests between larvae of the endoparasitoid<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Venturia canescens</Emphasis> depends on both their relative and absolute ages

In a laboratory colony of the asexual solitary endoparasitoid Venturia canescens Grav. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), two genetically and phenotypically distinct lines (RP and RM) appear to coexist sympatrically, with the reproductive success of the RM-line being greater under con-specific superparasitism but lower under self superparasitism. To investigate the basis of the RM-lines advantage under con-specific superparasitism, we examined the outcome of inter-larval physical combat under in-vitro conditions. The results showed that the outcome depended on both the relative and absolute ages of the contestants, and that the competitive abilities of the two lines were not symmetric. In contests involving a larva and an egg, the unhatched wasp lost. In contests involving two larvae, at least one of which was newly hatched, the RP-larva tended to lose. Finally, if both larvae were at least 8–10 h post-hatching when the contest occurred, then the larger larva tended to lose, with the probability increasing with the difference in length between the two larvae. Thus, the higher reproductive success of the RM-line under competing superparasitism with the RP-line is due to a physiological difference between the newly hatched larvae of the two lines, which results in an advantage to the RM-larva independent of the order or time interval between ovipositions.Communicated by P. Heeb     

Why do Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chalcites basalis</Emphasis> eggs mimic those of their hosts?

The Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo (Chalcites basalis) egg closely matches the appearance of its host fairy-wren (Malurus spp.) eggs. Mimicry of host eggs by cuckoos is usually attributed to coevolution between cuckoos and hosts, with host discrimination against odd-looking eggs selecting for ever better mimicry by cuckoos. However, this process cannot explain Horsfield’s bronze-cuckoo egg mimicry because fairy-wren hosts rarely reject odd-looking eggs from their nest. An alternative hypothesis is that cuckoos have evolved egg mimicry to disguise their eggs from other cuckoos. Female cuckoos remove one egg from the nest during parasitism and would potentially benefit by selectively removing any cuckoo egg that has already been laid in the nest because otherwise, their egg will be evicted by the first nestling cuckoo along with the host clutch. We used painted, non-mimetic eggs to test whether cuckoos selectively remove odd-looking eggs during parasitism. We found that they were no more likely to remove a non-mimetic egg from a superb fairy-wren Malurus cyaneus clutch than would be expected by chance. Thus, our study does not support the cuckoo egg replacement hypothesis to explain mimicry of host eggs by cuckoos.     

Oviposition height increases parasitism success by the robber fly Mallophora ruficauda (Diptera: Asilidae)

For parasitoids, host finding is a central problem that has been solved through a variety of behavioural mechanisms. Among species in which females do not make direct contact with hosts, as is the case for many dipteran parasitoids, eggs must be laid in an appropriate part of the host habitat. The asilid fly Mallophora ruficauda lays eggs in clusters on tall vegetation. Upon eclosion, pollen-sized larvae fall and parasitize soil-dwelling scarab beetle larvae. We hypothesized that wind dissemination of M. ruficauda larvae is important in the host-finding process and that females lay eggs at heights that maximize parasitism of its concealed host. Through numerical and analytical models resembling those used to describe seed and pollen wind dispersal, we estimated an optimal oviposition height in the 1.25- to 1.50-m range above the ground. Our models take into account host distribution, plant availability and the range over which parasitic larvae search for hosts. Supporting our findings, we found that the results of the models match heights at which egg clusters of M. ruficauda are found in the field. Generally, work on facilitation of host finding using plants focuses on plants as indicators of host presence. We present a case where plants are used in a different way, as a means of offspring dispersal. For parasitoids that carry out host searching at immature stages rather than as adults, plants are part of a dissemination mechanism of larvae that, as with minute seeds, uses wind and a set of simple rules of physics to increase offspring success.     

Differential use of conspecific-derived information by sexual and asexual parasitic wasps exploiting partially depleted host patches

When foraging partially depleted patches (i.e., a fraction of hosts are already parasitized), female parasitoids must decide: 1—whether to superparasitize, and 2—whether to stay in their current patch (thus missing the opportunity of finding a better patch elsewhere). To make these decisions, parasitoids may rely on different cues, produced both by the environment and by conspecifics. Animals thriving in different environments may differ in cues they use. In the solitary parasitoid Venturia canescens, thelytokous (asexual) and arrhenotokous (sexual) individuals are found in two contrasting environments. Thelytokous females, from anthropogenic conditions, are known to cope with superparasitism in an adaptive way. On the other hand, little is known about superparasitism by arrhenotokous females. We compared the host exploitation strategies of thelytokous and arrhenotokous females in partially depleted patches. Hosts parasitized by thelytokous females were more frequently avoided than those parasitized by arrhenotokous females, suggesting a stronger chemical marking of the former. Only thelytokous females used information from conspecifics for patch-leaving decisions. The conformity of the differences in the behavior of thelytokous and arrhenotokous females with the environmental conditions they experience in their habitat is discussed.