Urban forest in China: Development patterns,influencing factors and research prospects

Urban forest is a very important part of urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. This article reviews the development status, development patterns and influencing factors of urban forest in China. There are four typical development patterns of urban forest in China: the forest city, garden city, ecological economics and forest greenbelt. Social, climatic, economic and other factors influence urban forest development in China. Social factors include government behaviour, laws and regulations, science and technology, education and culture, public awareness and participation, ecological planning and management. Climatic factors include rainfall, temperature and sunlight. Economic factors include urban economic level and funding for urban forest. In future, government, NGOs and the private sector should be considered more in the planning and management of urban forest. The social, climatic and economic factors should be taken into account when improving urban forest management. Research on urban forest from the academic and the management viewpoint should be strengthened. This can improve the development and management of urban forest in China and in other developing countries.     

Relevance to primary health care of village health workers and traditional birth attendants in rural areas of Oyo State,Nigeria

The objectives of the study were to investigate the relevance of traditional birth attendants (TBAs) and village health workers (VHWs) in primary health care of rural people, to identify problems encountered by TBAs/VHWs in the course of their activities, and to determine the attitude of residents (clients and non-clients) towards the services provided. The study area was rural Ibarapa in Oyo State, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 30 VHWs, 30 TBAs, their clients (120) and 240 local residents. Data were collected through a validated and pre-tested structured interview guide. The study concluded that VHWs and TBAs play a tremendous role and provide essential services in primary health care delivery for rural people. Problems encountered by VHWs and TBAs were irregular supply of drugs, unsatisfactory monitoring, supervision and evaluation by higher health officers from the local government and primary health care centres and poor remuneration. The residents were positive and satisfied with the services provided by the VHWs and TBAs and need their services.

It is recommended that: the local government authorities should carefully examine the modus operandi of the VHWs and TBAs with a view to revamping, reorganizing, rejuvenating and refocusing to make the best use of them; regular (quarterly) training should be organized by the local council for the VHWs and TBAs on current issues, ailments, symptoms and treatments; drugs and other essential supplies should be made available to the VHWs and TBAs and incentives and remuneration accruable to them should be reviewed upwards.     

Transboundary conservation: Development implications for communities in KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Conservation is increasingly promoted as a sustainable development instrument in Southern Africa, particularly for remote rural communities. Conservation and development schemes are marketed as community-based projects providing local empowerment through the creation of jobs and cash stemming from protected areas, as well as increased biodiversity protection by local communities whose jobs are dependent on the resource. Transfrontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs), mega Peace Parks that cross international borders, are one of the latest conservation and development paradigms in Southern Africa. TFCAs have gained broad support, including government recognition as a development tool. However, there has been minimal research on the impact of TFCAs on local communities. This paper seeks to provide an empirical case study of a South African community bordering the Lubombo TFCA (South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique). Results are presented that indicate the Mbangweni community in KwaZulu-Natal could experience decreased access to social, natural, and economic resources as a result of the Peace Park.     

Indigenous ecological knowledge of Borana pastoralists in southern Ethiopia and current challenges

Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) of Borana pastoralists on strategies of sustainable resource utilization, forage species, ecological interactions, rangeland condition and trend was documented using discussions, a semi-structured questionnaire survey and analytical workshops. Traditional strategies of rangeland and water management were described and the most important forage species identified. Pastoralists' perceptions were compared across age, gender and site. There was a positive correlation between pastoralists' preference ranking of forage species and crude protein content of the species. IEK of men and women was complementary. The process of rangeland degradation was described as shortage of grass and decrease in density and frequency of highly palatable grass species, leading to low milk production and reduced conception rates in cows. The results confirmed that the IEK of these pastoralists could still provide the basis for sustainable resource utilization and rangeland rehabilitation. However, the young generation in the area had not only limited knowledge but also showed less interest to learn and apply the traditional resource management strategies. Therefore, there is high need to perpetuate, document and use this IEK for sustainable development. On the other hand, shortage of forage resources as a result of rangeland shrinkage (leading to rangeland degradation and woody plants encroachment), less application of IEK, the gap between traditional and formal systems, and trends of disobeying traditional rules and regulations were identified as current challenges for the Borana pastoralists.     

Medicinal plants: Potential for economic development in the state of Uttaranchal,India

The present study deals with the medicinal plant wealth of Uttaranchal state in northern India. A total of 964 medicinal plant species were documented with the help of a literature survey and fieldwork undertaken in the various parts of the state. These medicinal plants were used in curing 135 ailments, with the highest numbers of species being used for treatment of cuts and wounds, followed by fever and diarrhoea. Among the various life forms, herbs were dominant (64%), followed by 20% shrubs and 16% tree species. Taxonomically, Asteraceae was the dominant family, having 87 species of medicinal plants, followed by Fabaceae (58 species), Lamiaceae (49 species), Rosaceae (30 species), Liliaceae (29 species), Apiaceae (28 species), Euphorbiaceae (26 species), Ranunculaceae (26 species) and Orchidaceae (23 species). Such a rich resource base indicates the huge potential for economic development of the state through herb-based industries.     

Impact of tourism development on land-cover change in a matriarchal community in the Lugu Lake area

Remote sensing was used to assess the impacts of tourism development on temporal land-cover changes in the Lugu Lake region, home to the Mosuo people. The ecological and economic significance of the Lugu Lake area derives from the existence of a unique matriarchal system and the success of tourism development. Temporal land-cover changes between 1990 and 2005 were evaluated using digital interpretation of multitemporal Landsat TM images. Pairwise comparison methods were used to quantify changes in land-cover during three periods: 1990 to 1995, 1995 to 2001, and 2001 to 2005. The areas surveyed in each period were 10,226 ha, 7,727 ha and 9,344 ha, respectively. The annual rate of land-cover change for farmland, forest, grassland and wetland were 2.86%, 5.85%, 3.95%, 6.28%, respectively. Farmland and wetland have decreased, whereas forest, grassland and residential areas have increased. The land-cover changes could be explained by the success of tourism development and ecosystem management in Lugu Lake region. The impact of tourism on land cover and the community environment were assessed. The results show that most farmers actively left farms for off-farm jobs and took measures to protect forest, grassland and wetland by developing tourism in the study area. However, construction in residential areas has proceeded in a disorderly fashion. In future, the potential impacts of tourism on the lake ecosystem need to be re-assessed and monitored.     

Identification of agricultural factors for improving sustainable land resource management in northern Thailand: A case study in Chiang Mai Province

This paper aims to identify the land-use factors benefiting sustainable land management in terms of environmental conservation. For evaluating the impacts of land use on the environment, the following parameters were used: chemical fertiliser and pesticide use, land-use structure and diversity. The farmers' income, land tenure and farming scale were selected for their influence on agricultural sustainability. The analysis shows a rapid increase in use of chemical fertiliser and pesticide in the past 40 years, and an observable increase in land-use diversity. The amount of chemical fertiliser used per unit area in large-scale farming was lower than that at small scales, but large-scale farming consumes more pesticide than small-scale farming. A significant negative correlation was observed between the proportions of the holdings possessing land and the holdings using the chemical fertiliser. In order to achieve sustainable agriculture, it is necessary to manage crop systems and land use towards selecting new strains and varieties of crops and fruits with a lower demand for chemical fertiliser and a higher resistance to disease and pests, balancing large- and small-scale farming, and ensuring land tenure and economic incentives.     

Multivariate analysis of watershed health and sustainability in Turkey

National hydrological network data between 1970 and 2002 for 96 stations across 25 watersheds were used to monitor annual trends in 13 variables: streamflow rates, water temperature, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), sediment concentration and eight nutrient levels (Na, K, Ca+Mg, CO₃, HCO₃, Cl, SO₄ and boron). The dataset was analysed with multiple linear regression (MLR) models, principal components analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (CA). The Turkish watersheds have experienced a significant increase in pH, K, CO₃ and a significant decrease in streamflow rate and sediment concentration between 1970 and 2002, with considerable spatial variations. There was also an increasing trend in streamwater temperature, at a rate of 0.05°C yr^–1 (p > 0.05). The MLR models had high r ² values of 69.6% to 99.9% at p ≤ 0.001 for 12 out of the 13 variables, with r ² of 42% for boron (p < 0.05). PCA reduced the dimensionality of the dataset to four principal components that explain most (81.7%) of the variance. CA was able to distinguish six geographically associated groupings of watersheds with similar attributes in concordance with the climate zones of Turkey, despite the use of different clustering methods (complete, McQuitty, average, centroid and single linkage methods). Multivariate analyses of dynamic watershed characteristics provide the basis on which preventive and mitigative measures can be tailored to secure and enhance watershed health and sustainability.     

Perceptions of incentives for participation: insights from joint forest management in India

The participatory approach in management of forests is now well established in forest policies of many developing countries. Incentives for different groups to participate have been argued by many to be desirable characteristics to promote participation. A key challenge for government and donor agencies is to develop better understanding of the incentives for different groups to be able to achieve and sustain their participation. Based on a case study of a joint forest management (JFM) programme in the northern state of Haryana in India, this paper highlights the relevance of understanding people's perception of the incentives. It specifically examines three hypotheses related to perceptions of villagers about incentives offered under the JFM programme and relates them to their participation in joint management. It concludes that a better understanding is likely to help in improving project implementation at the local level and the design of participatory forest management programmes more generally.     

Group size,heterogeneity and collective action outcomes: Evidence from community forestry in Nepal

In the context of ongoing theoretical debate on the role of group size and heterogeneity in affecting collective action outcomes, this study analyzed associations of group size, and intra-group heterogeneities arising from ethnic, educational and livelihood-related differences with conditions of selected forests managed (formally or informally) by local user groups in the middle hills of Nepal. Four biological variables, basal area of trees, density of trees, density of saplings and richness of plant species, were chosen to represent the condition of the forests. The findings show significant differences in biological condition of the forests managed by different size forest user groups and levels of ethnic, educational and livelihood-related heterogeneities. These differences, however, are inconsistent across the dependent variables representing forest condition, indicating that they were not necessarily caused by the size of the user groups or the group heterogeneities, but could be the result of other factors, such as the history of forest land use and degradation, composition of tree species and institutional arrangements governing the forests.