Cocaine and cannabinoids in the atmosphere of Northern Europe cities,comparison with Southern Europe and wastewater analysis |
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| Institution: | 1. National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research (IIA), Monterotondo, RM, Italy;2. MRC PHE Centre for Environment and Health, King''s College London, United Kingdom;3. Stockholm University, Dept. of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES), Stockholm, Sweden;4. Public Health Service (GGD), Dept. of Air Quality Research, Amsterdam, Netherlands;5. Environment and Health Administration, City of Stockholm, Sweden;1. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, 520 Lafayette Road, St. Paul, MN 55155-4194, USA;2. SGS AXYS Analytical Services, Ltd, 2045 Mills Road West, Sidney, British Columbia V8L 562, Canada;3. Minnesota Department of Health, 601 Robert St. North, St. Paul, MN 55155-2531, USA;1. Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China;2. Department of Civil Engineering & Applied Mechanics, McGill University, Montreal, Canada;3. AMEC Environment and Infrastructure, Montreal, Canada;4. Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium;5. College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, China |
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| Abstract: | This study reports the first investigation of atmospheric illicit drug concentrations in Northern Europe using measurements of cocaine and cannabinoids in Amsterdam, London and Stockholm. Further, these measurements were compared to those made in Rome to explore the geographical and inter-city variability. Co-located measurements of atmospheric particulate mass and PAHs were used to help describe and interpret the illicit drug measurements with respect to atmospheric dispersion. Cocaine concentrations ranged from 0.03 to 0.14 ng/m3 in Amsterdam, from 0.02 to 0.33 ng/m3 in London and were below quantification limit (3 pg/m3) in Stockholm. Cannabinol was the only cannabinoid molecule detected in the three cities. During this campaign, London reported the highest concentrations of cocaine and meaningful differences were detected between the urban background and city centre London sites. Mean cocaine concentrations measured in Amsterdam during March 2011 were also compared with those measured simultaneously in eight Italian cities. The cocaine concentration in Amsterdam was comparable to that measured at an urban background in Milan and at a densely populated site in Florence. Although correlating atmospheric concentrations directly with drug prevalence is not possible using current data, links between concentrations of cocaine and estimates of abuse prevalence assessed by the more routinely used wastewater analysis were also examined. A statistically significant correlation was found between the two sets of data (R2 = 0.66; p = 0.00131). Results confirmed that meteorology, population rate and habits of consumption influence the atmospheric concentrations of drugs. If these confounding factors were better controlled for, the techniques described here could became an easy and cost effective tool to index the impact of cocaine abuse in the area; especially where local hot spots need to be identified. |
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