Ungulate Reintroductions: Experiences with the Takhi or Przewalski Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) in Mongolia

Experiences with the reintroduction of the takhi, or Przewalski horse ( Equus ferus przewalskii , in Mongolia can serve as valuable lessons for reintroduction of ungulates in general. We discuss the present taxonomic, historical, and biological evidence and conclude that the takhi should be viewed as a typical steppe herbivore. Its last refuge, the Dzungarian Gobi, should therefore be seen as a marginal habitat because it consists mainly of desert and semidesert. Since 1992 two reintroduction projects have been in the acclimatization phase in Mongolia. Despite promising developments, problems with cooperation, management, habitat choice, insufficient knowledge of the ethology of the species, and current land use within the different project areas could jeopardize the successful reintroduction of takhi. We review the conditions required for a potentially successful ungulate reintroduction. The planning of a reintroduction within the framework of safeguarding an entire ecosystem with an integrated management plan appears essential. Each potential reintroduction site should be assessed thoroughly for its suitability, including size, habitat types, current land use, socioeconomics, legislation, and potential problems. Each site should be provided with one or more acclimatization facilities to harbor genetically and physically healthy, socially adapted animals in biologically sound groups. An organization structure should be established for each reintroduction site. Its objective should be to develop an effective management plan and to carefully monitor the population and its surrounding ecosystem. Special attention should be given to local socioeconomic situations, community participation, and training of staff for management, research, and ranger and warden activities.