Climate Change, Coral Reef Ecosystems, and Management Options for Marine Protected Areas |
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Authors: | Brian D Keller Daniel F Gleason Elizabeth McLeod Christa M Woodley Satie Airamé Billy D Causey Alan M Friedlander Rikki Grober-Dunsmore Johanna E Johnson Steven L Miller Robert S Steneck |
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Institution: | 1. Southeast Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Region, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, St. Petersburg, FL, 33701, USA 2. Biology Department, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, 30460, USA 3. Asia Pacific Region, The Nature Conservancy, Honolulu, HI, 96817, USA 4. Center for Watershed Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA 5. Partnership for Interdisciplinary Studies of Coastal Oceans, Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106, USA 6. Southeast Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Region, NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Key West, FL, 33040, USA 7. Biogeography Team, NOAA Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, Waimanalo, HI, 96795, USA 8. Hawaii Cooperative Fish Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, 96822, USA 10. Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Islands 9. NOAA National Marine Protected Areas Science Center, Santa Cruz, CA, 95060, USA 11. Climate Change Program, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, QLD, 4810, Australia 12. C2O Consulting, Townsville, QLD, Australia 13. Center for Marine Science Research, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Key Largo, FL, 33037, USA 14. Darling Marine Center, University of Maine, Walpole, ME, 04573, USA
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Abstract: | Marine protected areas (MPAs) provide place-based management of marine ecosystems through various degrees and types of protective actions. Habitats such as coral reefs are especially susceptible to degradation resulting from climate change, as evidenced by mass bleaching events over the past two decades. Marine ecosystems are being altered by direct effects of climate change including ocean warming, ocean acidification, rising sea level, changing circulation patterns, increasing severity of storms, and changing freshwater influxes. As impacts of climate change strengthen they may exacerbate effects of existing stressors and require new or modified management approaches; MPA networks are generally accepted as an improvement over individual MPAs to address multiple threats to the marine environment. While MPA networks are considered a potentially effective management approach for conserving marine biodiversity, they should be established in conjunction with other management strategies, such as fisheries regulations and reductions of nutrients and other forms of land-based pollution. Information about interactions between climate change and more “traditional” stressors is limited. MPA managers are faced with high levels of uncertainty about likely outcomes of management actions because climate change impacts have strong interactions with existing stressors, such as land-based sources of pollution, overfishing and destructive fishing practices, invasive species, and diseases. Management options include ameliorating existing stressors, protecting potentially resilient areas, developing networks of MPAs, and integrating climate change into MPA planning, management, and evaluation. |
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