Tsunami generation by submarine landslides: comparison of physical and numerical models

An idealised two-dimensional laboratory model of tsunamis generated by submarine landslides is described. The experimental configuration corresponds to the benchmark configuration suggested by other researchers in the international tsunami community. It comprises a semi-elliptical rigid landslide with a height to length ratio of 0.052 sliding down a 15° slope. The initial landslide submergence and specific gravity are varied, the second of which primarily determines the initial landslide acceleration. In these experiments the landslide motion is generally well approximated as consisting of two periods of constant acceleration. The first phase of positive acceleration finishes as the landslide reaches the base of the slope, while the second period of a slower deceleration continues until the landslide comes to rest along the horizontal base of the tank. A novel experimental technique, which utilises laser-induced fluorescence (LIF), is employed to measure the free surface displacement over the entire space and time domains. This enables the wave potential energy field to be computed directly and provides a vivid picture of the wave generation and development process. Particle tracking velocimetry provides detailed information on the landslide motion and also some data on the sub-surface velocity field. Experimental runs require multiple repeats (typically 35–50) of the same setup in order to capture the entire wave field with the desired resolution. Thus high level experimental repeatability is required, and this is demonstrated. A range of parameters relevant to hazard management are presented and discussed. Maximum crest and trough amplitudes of the offshore propagating waves are shown to be approximately proportional to the initial landslide acceleration and somewhat less strongly dependent on the initial landslide submergence. The maximum wave run-up experienced at the shoreline is shown to depend almost linearly on the magnitude of a high deceleration that occurs for a short period when the landslide nears the toe of the slope. The initial submergence and initial acceleration do not directly determine the maximum wave run-up, although for these experiments they impact indirectly on the magnitude of the deceleration. The efficiency of the energy transfer from the landslide potential energy to the wave field potential energy reaches values of up to 6% and is found to be strongly dependent on the initial submergence. However because of the link between the landslide mass and its acceleration, this efficiency is almost completely independent of the initial acceleration. The results from a numerical model based on linear, inviscid and irrotational wave theory, and solved with the boundary element method, are compared with the data from the experimental program. The numerical model accurately produces the generated sequence of wave crests and troughs, but slightly overpredicts their phase speed by between 2 and 4%. For all other parameters the numerical model predictions are within 25% of the experimental values, although this includes both under- and overprediction for the range of independent parameters covered.     

城市可持续发展评价的分指数及综合指数公式

在指标按特征分类的基础上，提出了城市可持续发展评价分类指标的分指数公式和多类别组合的综合指数公式。应用遗传算法对公式中的参数进行优化，得到简单而适用的城市可持续发展评价模型。模型应用于全国“七五”，“八五”可持续发展评价结果与实际分析结果一致。该模型具有可比性强，通用性好和简单，实用的特点。     

Detection of pollution effects on marine macrobenthos: further evaluation of the species abundance/biomass method

Further empirical data are presented to evaluate the method of detecting pollution-induced disturbance in marine benthic communities by a comparison of the distribution of numbers of individuals among species with the distribution of biomass among species. A suggested abbreviated name for the technique is the ABC method (abundance biomass comparison). Application of the technique to new data shows that it is a sensitive indicator of natural physical and biological disturbance as well as pollution-induced disturbance over both spatial and temporal scales. Changes in the configuration of ABC plots during ecological succession are the reverse of those resulting from increased pollution levels. The technique should also be applicable to intertidal sediments, where physical disturbance of the sediment by waves does not appear to preclude its utility.     

Numerical modeling of the 26th December 2004 India Ocean tsunami at Andaman and Nicobar Islands

A numerical simulation of the 26th December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands case study is presented. The simulation approach is based on a fully nonlinear Boussinesq tsunami propagation model and included an accurate computational domain and a robust coseismic source. The simulation is first confronted to available tide gauge and run-up observations. The agreement between observations and the predicted wave heights allowed a reasonable validation of the simulation. As a result a full picture of the tsunami impact is provided over the entire coastal zone of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The processes responsible for coastal vulnerability are discussed.     

Risk assessment of coastal flood in a site of special scientific interest

The Canary Islands have a long coastline with varying levels of exposure to severe sea conditions. Frequent states of alert and emergency in some parts of their coastline are commonly related to the occurrence of extreme wave conditions. Among the phenomena directly driven by the waves when reaching the shore are the wave run-up and overtopping. Both the study of the flood level, including its variability, and the associated risks are key tools in the planning and management of coastal zones. The aim of this research is to examine the probability of occurrence of run-up events capable of exceeding different topographical levels, for estimating the risk level associated with flooding of the different areas in which the Boca Barranco Beach can be divided, in terms of their nature and use. This beach is located on the island of Gran Canaria, Spain, and is part of the site of scientific interest of Jinámar. A large wave dataset is used as input to a high-resolution numerical model for propagating offshore wave conditions to shallow waters in the study area. Furthermore, the morphology of the study area is reproduced by combining different bathymetric databases. Finally, the probability of occurrence of different levels of run-up and the corresponding levels of consequences are assigned, to assess the flood risk in the different areas of the beach, which are presented in a risk map of flooding in the study area.     

Longshore sediment transport in the surf zone based on different formulae: a case study along the central west coast of India

Understanding longshore sediment transport (LST) is a prerequisite for designing an effective coastal zone management strategy. The present study estimates the LST along the central west coast of India based on four bulk LST formulae: (1) the Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) formula, (2) the Walton and Bruno formula, (3) the Kamphuis formula and (4) the Komar formula. The Delft3D–wave module is used for estimating nearshore waves with measured directional wave data at a water depth of 9 m as the input parameter. Wave data for the validation of the nearshore wave transformation model is measured using the InterOcean S4DW wave gauge. The model results show that waves approach from the south 90 % of the time in a year and that they generate predominantly northerly longshore currents. Upon comparison with the measured data, the findings show that the estimates based on the Kamphuis formula agree with the field data. A high ratio (~1) of the monthly net and gross transport rates indicates that the LST is dominating in one direction in all months except February and July. The study shows that a slight change in the angle of the wave approach during the Asian summer monsoon period (JJAS) can significantly alter the direction and magnitude of the LST. Inter-annual variations in the LST based on the data for 2009 and 2011 show that the variations in the annual net and gross LST rates in different years are less than 7 %.     

Generation of internal waves by sheared turbulence: experiments

A series of experiments is presented that model the generation of internal gravity waves in the ocean by the forcing of turbulent eddies in the surface mixed layer.The experimental setup consists of a shallow mixed upper layer and a deep continuously stratified lower layer. A source of turbulence is dragged through the upper layer. Internal waves can freely propagate in the lower layer. The internal waves are measured using synthetic schlieren to determine the frequencies of the generated waves. Consistent with other studies, it is found that the characteristic frequencies of internal waves generated by turbulence are an approximate constant fraction of the buoyancy frequency.     

Experimental study of a positive surge. Part 1: basic flow patterns and wave attenuation

A positive surge results from a sudden change in flow that increases the depth. It is the unsteady flow analogy of the stationary hydraulic jump and a geophysical application is the tidal bore. Positive surges are commonly studied using the method of characteristics and the Saint-Venant equations. The article presents the results from new experimental investigations conducted in a large rectangular channel. Detailed unsteady velocity measurements were performed with a high temporal resolution using acoustic Doppler velocimetry and non-intrusive free-surface measurement devices. Several experiments were conducted with the same initial discharge (Q = 0.060 m³/s) and six different gate openings after closure resulting in both non-breaking undular and breaking bores. The analysis of undular surges revealed wave amplitude attenuation with increasing distance of surge propagation were in agreement with Ippen and Kulin theory. Also, undular wave period and wave length data were relatively close to the values predicted by the wave dispersion theory for gravity waves in intermediate water depths.     

Mid-depth oil concentration due to vertical oil dispersion in a regular wave field

An experimental program is organized to investigate the vertical oil dispersion of surface oil spills in a regular wave field. Various waves characteristics and different volumes of oil spills are tested to assess the oil concentration variations at two sampling stations. It is found that the oil concentration due to vertical oil dispersion follows an ascending diagram to reach a maximum and then decreases while oil slick passes the location. The maximum mid-depth oil concentration (C_max) at the farther sampling station is 30–50 % less than the concentration at the closer sampling station to the spill location. A 50 % increase in oil spill volume causes 30–60 % growth in oil concentrations. The relations between oil concentration and important parameters such as wave characteristics, amount of spilled oil and the distance of sampling stations from the spill location are indicated and also oil concentration variations are quantified. Two equations are derived through statistical analysis of the obtained experimental data, which estimate the magnitude and time of maximum oil concentration.     

A novelty coastal susceptibility assessment method: application to Valdelagrana area (SW Spain)

The main aim of this paper is to present a new methodology to determine coastal susceptibility to erosion and flooding processes by means of an index-based method. The proposed indices take into account physical parameters, such as dune and beach geomorphologic characteristics, shoreline evolution, local significant wave height and relative run-up. The coastal susceptibility has been estimated by elaboration of spatial input data into a GIS environment. The method has been tested in Valdelagrana area, a sandy spit located in SW Spain. The spit includes several morpho-sedimentary environments: sandy beach, discontinuous embryo dunes and foredunes, mud flats and wide areas of vegetated salt marshes. The Northernmost sector is densely urbanized whilst the rest is part of a natural protected area belonging to the Bahía de Cádiz Natural Park. The results obtained showed how the Southern part of the spit presented a high susceptibility due to an elevated erosion rate and the presence of low and discontinuous dune ridges.     

Experimental analysis of Froude number effect on air entrainment in the hydraulic jump

A hydraulic jump is characterized by strong energy dissipation and mixing, large-scale turbulence, air entrainment, waves, and spray. Despite recent pertinent studies, the interaction between air bubbles diffusion and momentum transfer is not completely understood. The objective of this paper is to present experimental results from new measurements performed in a rectangular horizontal flume with partially developed inflow conditions. The vertical distributions of the void fraction and the air bubbles count rate were recorded for inflow Froude number Fr ₁ in the range from 5.2 to 14.3. Rapid detrainment process was observed near the jump toe, whereas the structure of the air diffusion layer was clearly observed over longer distances. These new data were compared with previous data generally collected at lower Froude numbers. The comparison demonstrated that, at a fixed distance from the jump toe, the maximum void fraction C _max increases with the increasing Fr ₁. The vertical locations of the maximum void fraction and bubble count rate were consistent with previous studies. Finally, an empirical correlation between the upper boundary of the air diffusion layer and the distance from the impingement point was derived.     

Modelling the motion of an internal solitary wave over a bottom ridge in a stratified fluid

A series of laboratory experiments has been carried out to investigate the passage of an internal solitary wave of depression over a bottom ridge, in a two-layer fluid system for which the upper and lower layer is linearly-stratified and homogeneous respectively. Density, velocity and vorticity fields induced by the wave propagation over the ridge have been measured simultaneously at three locations, namely upstream, downstream and over the ridge crest, for a wide range of model parameters. Results are presented to show that wave breaking may occur for a sufficiently large wave amplitude and a strong ridge blockage factor, with accompanying mixing and overturning. Density field data are presented (i) to illustrate the overturning and mixing processes that accompany the wave breaking and (ii) to quantify the degree of mixing in terms of the wave and ridge parameters. For weak encounters, good agreement is obtained between the laboratory experimental results (velocity and vorticity fields induced by the wave propagation) and the predictions of a recently-developed fully nonlinear theory. Discrepancies between theory and experiment are discussed for cases in which breaking and mixing occur.     

Numerical study of wave–current–vegetation interaction in coastal waters

Research on interactions among wave, current, and vegetation has received increasing attention. An explicit depth-averaged hydrodynamic model coupled with a wave spectral model (CMS-wave) was proposed in this study in order to simulate the wave and wave-induced current in coastal waters. The hydrodynamic model was based on the finite volume method while the intercell flux was computed by employing the Harten–Lax–van Leer approximate Riemann solver to investigate the dry-to-wet interface, and the drag force of vegetation was modeled as the sink terms in the momentum equations. The CMS-wave model was used to investigate the non-breaking and the breaking random waves propagation in vegetation fields. Afterwards, an empirical wave energy dissipation term with plant effect was derived to represent the resistance induced by aquatic vegetation in the wave-action balance equation. The established model was calibrated and validated with both the experimental and field data. The results showed that the wave height decreased significantly along the wave propagation direction in the presence of vegetations. The sensitivity analysis for the plant density, the wave height, and the water depth were performed by comparing the numerical results for the wave height attenuation. In addition, wave and wave-induced current through a finite patch of vegetation in the surf zone were investigated as well. The strong radiation stress gradient could be produced due to the variation of the energy dissipation by vegetation effect in the nearshore zone, which impacted the direction and amplitude of the longshore current. The calculated results showed that the coupling model had good performance in predicting wave propagation and the current over vegetated water regions.     

An estimating function approach to the inference of catch-effort models

A class of catch-effort models, which allows for heterogeneous removal probabilities, is proposed for closed populations. The model includes three types of removal probabilities: multiplicative, Poisson and logistic. The usual removal and generalized removal models then become special cases. The equivalence of the proposed model and a special type of capture-recapture model is discussed. A unified estimating function approach is used to estimate the initial population size. For the homogeneous model, the resulting population size estimator based on optimal estimating functions is asymptotically equivalent to the maximum likelihood estimator. One advantage for our approach is that it can be extended to handle the heterogeneous populations in which the maximum likelihood estimators do not exist. The bootstrap method is applied to construct variance estimators and confidence intervals. We illustrate the method by two real data examples. Results of a simulation study investigating the performance of the proposed estimation procedure are presented.     

Waves of intermediate length through an array of vertical cylinders

We report a semi-analytical theory of wave propagation through a vegetated water. Our aim is to construct a mathematical model for waves propagating through a lattice-like array of vertical cylinders, where the macro-scale variation of waves is derived from the dynamics in the micro-scale cells. Assuming infinitesimal waves, periodic lattice configuration, and strong contrast between the lattice spacing and the typical wavelength, the perturbation theory of homogenization (multiple scales) is used to derive the effective equations governing the macro-scale wave dynamics. The constitutive coefficients are computed from the solution of micro-scale boundary-value problem for a finite number of unit cells. Eddy viscosity in a unit cell is determined by balancing the time-averaged rate of dissipation and the rate of work done by wave force on the forest at a finite number of macro stations. While the spirit is similar to RANS scheme, less computational effort is needed. Using one fitting parameter, the theory is used to simulate three existing experiments with encouraging results. Limitations of the present theory are also pointed out.     

Estimation bias under model selection for distance sampling detection functions

Many simulation studies have examined the properties of distance sampling estimators of wildlife population size. When assumptions hold, if distances are generated from a detection model and fitted using the same model, they are known to perform well. However, in practice, the true model is unknown. Therefore, standard practice includes model selection, typically using model comparison tools like Akaike Information Criterion. Here we examine the performance of standard distance sampling estimators under model selection. We compare line and point transect estimators with distances simulated from two detection functions, hazard-rate and exponential power series (EPS), over a range of sample sizes. To mimic the real-world context where the true model may not be part of the candidate set, EPS models were not included as candidates, except for the half-normal parameterization. We found median bias depended on sample size (being asymptotically unbiased) and on the form of the true detection function: negative bias (up to 15% for line transects and 30% for point transects) when the shoulder of maximum detectability was narrow, and positive bias (up to 10% for line transects and 15% for point transects) when it was wide. Generating unbiased simulations requires careful choice of detection function or very large datasets. Practitioners should collect data that result in detection functions with a shoulder similar to a half-normal and use the monotonicity constraint. Narrow-shouldered detection functions can be avoided through good field procedures and those with wide shoulder are unlikely to occur, due to heterogeneity in detectability.     

A new algorithm for estimating the parameters of the spatial generalized linear mixed models

Non-Gaussian spatial responses are usually modeled using a spatial generalized linear mixed model with location specific latent variables. The likelihood function of this model cannot usually be given in a closed form, thus the maximum likelihood approach is very challenging. So far, several numerical algorithms to solve the problem of calculating maximum likelihood estimates of this model have been presented. In this paper to estimate the parameters an approximate method is considered and a new algorithm is introduced that is much faster than existing algorithms but just as accurate. This is called the Approximate Expectation Maximization Gradient algorithm. The performance of the proposed algorithm and is illustrated with a simulation study and on a real data set.     

New analytical formulations for calculation of dispersion parameters of Gaussian model using parallel CFD

New analytical formulations are presented for calculation of most effective parameters in the Gaussian plume dispersion model; the standard deviations of concentration for horizontal and vertical dispersion in neutral atmosphere conditions. Employing parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) as a powerful tool, some well-known analytical generations of Pasquill–Gifford–Turner experimental data are modified. To achieve this aim, CFD simulations are carried out for single stack dispersion on flat terrain surface and ground level concentrations are determined in different distances. An inverse procedure in Gaussian plume dispersion model is then applied and standard deviations of horizontal and vertical dispersions are obtained. The values are compared with those of the well-known methods of Doury, Briggs and Hanna in two cases: the experimental data for release of krypton-85 from 100 m high and pollution dispersion from three 28 m high stacks of Besat power plant near Tehran. The comparison indicates that new formulations for plume dispersion are more accurate than other well-known formulations.