贵州韭菜坪山区不同海拔草地群落植物多样性和生产力

草地群落特征和生产力反映草地对环境的适应,影响草地生态系统的稳定性、物质循环、能量流动和第二性生产.为了解贵州韭菜坪山区天然草地群落特征和生产力在垂直梯度上的变化规律,以4个不同海拔梯度(2 385 m、2 503 m、2 553 m和2 648 m)天然草地为研究对象,通过野外植物群落调查,采用样方法、刈割法和数据处理探讨不同草地群落的物种组成、密度、盖度、生物多样性、地上生物量、载畜量及它们与海拔之间的关系.结果表明,4个草地群落植物共有27种,隶属于16科27属.随海拔升高,各草地群落物种数目由14种降低到5种,群落优势种(含共优势种)的密度分别为113.70、237.30、155.00、32.34株/m~2,盖度分别为88.60%、87.10%、89.70%和63.60%,生物量分别为2 597.40、3 851.90、3 274.90、387.70 kg/hm~2,草地载畜量分别为2.16、2.72、1.64、0.13羊单位/hm~2.此外,物种数目、Pielou均匀度指数、Margalef丰富度指数、Simpson多样性指数随海拔升高均呈现逐渐减小的趋势;草地群落随海拔升高的Cody多样性分别为10.00、7.00、7.50;物种数目S、Margalef丰富度指数和Simpson多样性指数与海拔高度均呈负二次函数关系.因此,可对中低海拔(2500 m以下)草地采取划区轮牧或季节性轮牧,对高海拔草地(2 500 m以上)采取禁牧或少牧的方式,以保证该区域草地生态系统的生物多样性和稳定性.     

彭州白水河国家级自然保护区植物群落α多样性的海拔梯度变化

白水河国家级自然保护区位于四川省彭州市境内,地处龙门山脉东南部,从海拔1400～4800 m依次覆盖着常绿阔叶林、常绿落叶混交林、落叶阔叶林、亚高山针叶林、高山亚高山灌丛、高山草甸和流石滩植被.通过对白水河保护区山地东南坡不同海拔高度的样方调查,研究了该区域植物群落α多样性及其沿海拔梯度的变化规律.结果表明,乔木层物种的丰富度及Shannon指数随海拔上升呈明显的线性下降趋势;灌木层和草本层物种丰富度及Shannon指数随海拔上升呈抛物线下降趋势.乔木物种从海拔1400 m的12种至林线下降为2种;灌木和草本植物分别从35种和38种至山顶下降为5种和20种.乔木层物种的均匀度在2800～2900 m由于出现单一的冷杉群落而突然降低;灌木层和草本层物种的均匀度则较为一致,波动不大.乔木层物种的优势度随海拔升高而逐渐上升,并在2900m急速升高;灌木层和草本层的优势度呈浅波状变化.乔木层物种随海拔升高在不同群落类型间出现明显的物种替代现象,表明海拔梯度包含了多种环境因子的梯度效应,影响着植物群落的分布、结构及物种多样性.图4表1参20     

不同海拔梯度灌丛草甸群落多样性的分布特征——以五台山亚高山-高山带南坡为例

针对五台山亚高山-高山带南坡灌丛草甸群落多样性沿海拔的分布方式进行研究,对研究地海拔2 200-3 000m植物群落进行野外调查,分析了灌丛草甸群落盖度、α多样性和β多样性对海拔梯度的响应。结果表明,样地内共调查物种19科44属52种,区系成分具有明显温带属性,兼有北极-高山分布类型。从低海拔到高海拔植被依次分布有金露梅(Potentilla fruticosa)灌丛草甸群落(2 201-2 700 m)、鬼箭锦鸡儿(Caragana jubata)灌丛草甸群落(2 700-2 800 m)、高山嵩草(Kobresia pygmaea)草甸群落(2 800-3 011 m),灌-草结构群落主要分布在2 200-2 800 m。在海拔梯度上,植物群落草本层盖度总体上大于灌木层,均值分别为75.78%和41.64%,草本层盖度和群落总盖度呈先上升后下降的变化趋势,而灌木层呈相反变化趋势,且波动较大。随着海拔的升高,Patrick指数、Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数和Pielou指数均呈显著下降的分布格局。Cody指数在2 201-2 296 m和2 800-2 903 m之间达到峰值,而Sorensen指数出现最小值,表明在2 201-2 296 m和2 800-2 903 m海拔范围内β多样性最大,是物种更替速率较快的过渡地带。在整个海拔范围内,灌丛草甸群落主要分布在2 200-2 800 m之间,海拔变化对灌丛草甸群落多样性差异产生重要的影响。研究结果有助于认识该地区灌丛草甸群落组成及其多样性格局,也将为灌丛草甸资源的生态保护和管理提供参考。     

念青唐古拉山东南坡植被群落数量生态分析及群落多样性

研究沿海拔梯度对植被群落的影响,有助于人们进一步理解未来气候变化背景下,高寒生态系统结构和功能的响应模式。选择念青唐古拉山东南坡的典型生境,包括从海拔4 775 m到5 305 m全部范围内的植物群落。沿着海拔梯度每隔约30m设置1个样带,并在各个样带上随机设置样方,调查样方内物种数、物种高度、物种盖度、物种频度。采用群落多样性指数、应用双向指示种分析法(TWINSPAN)和除趋势对应分析(DCA)等方法,对西藏念青唐古拉山东南坡高山草甸植物群落进行了分析。TWINSPAN将所有植物群落划分为5种类型,分别为:香柏(Sabina pingii var.wilsonii)+高山嵩草(Kobresia pygmaea)灌丛草甸群落;高山嵩草+圆穗蓼(Polygonum macrophyllum)草甸群落;高山嵩草+矮生嵩草(Kobresia humilis)草甸群落;高山嵩草草甸群落;流石滩冰缘植被群落。这些群落分别位于不同的海拔高度。分类结果很好地反映了植物群落类型分布与地形、海拔的关系,并在DCA二维排序图上得到了较好的验证。念青唐古拉山东南坡草地植物群落多样性在高海拔、低海拔地区较低,中间海拔高度地区较高。植物群落多样性指数呈现出草本层灌丛层流石滩冰缘的特征。多样性指数与海拔高度之间的趋势模拟均呈负二次函数关系,单峰式函数关系能较好地表达不同海拔梯度植物群落多样性和均匀度与海拔之间的分布格局。     

鄂尔多斯高原本氏针茅与油蒿群落过渡过程中的植被动态

灌木入侵对草原生态系统结构和功能产生了严重影响,了解其植被动态对草地灌丛化的控制和恢复具有重要意义.在鄂尔多斯高原选取本氏针茅向油蒿群落过渡过程中不同演替阶段的代表性群落类型,采用样方法、刈割法和根钻法,对不同群落的盖度、密度、生物量、凋落物、根系以及物种多样性进行调查和分析.结果表明:从本氏针茅向油蒿群落过渡的过程中,(1)演替阶段经历了本氏针茅群落、本氏针茅+糙隐子草群落、本氏针茅+油蒿群落、油蒿+糙隐子草群落、油蒿+达乌里胡枝子群落、油蒿群落6个群落类型.(2)群落盖度呈现先下降后上升,总密度先下降后升高再下降的趋势,地上、地下生物量及总生物量和凋落物干重在演替过程中总体呈上升趋势.(3)本氏针茅的盖度、密度、生物量和重要值逐渐下降,油蒿则相反.(4)随土层深度的增加,群落内植物根系干重总体上呈下降的趋势.根系干重在0-30 cm土层较为集中,整个演替阶段油蒿群落根系干重分布出现先升高后下降趋势,到第VI阶段根系分布深度可达80-90 cm.(5)物种丰富度指数、Simpson优势度指数、Shannon-Winner多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数均呈现先升高后下降的趋势.因此,鄂尔多斯高原草地灌丛化较为严重,尽管中度灌丛化阶段群落的盖度、生物量和生物多样性较高,但由于灌木入侵后整个演替阶段盖度、密度、物种多样性等明显下降,草原生态系统的可利用性降低,应将灌丛化草地恢复为本氏针茅为主的草地.     

山西关帝山神尾沟植物群落物种多样性与环境关系的研究I．丰富度、均匀度和物种多样性指数

以89个植物群落调查样地数据为基础，运用8个多样性指数对山西关帝山神尾沟物种多样性与环境之间的关系进行了分析.（1）群落总的表现为多样性和均匀度随海拔升高而下降，丰富度从1700m下降到2400m后开始升高；（2）群落不同层次表现为乔木层和灌木层多样性、丰富度和均匀度随海拔升高而下降，草本多样性和均匀度表现为上升趋势，丰富度下降到1900m后开始上升；（3）乔灌草三者多样性和丰富度指数值以及变化幅度都表现为草本层>灌木层>乔木层，三者均匀度相差不大；（4）群落不同坡向表现为阳坡多样性和丰富度都大于阴坡，均匀度相差不大.图6参7     

海拔对藏北高寒草地物种多样性和生物量的影响

高寒草地是青藏高原生态系统的主体,高寒草地物种多样性和生物量沿海拔梯度的空间分布格局在气候变化及人为干扰的双重影响下已发生重大变化。为明晰海拔对物种多样性和生物量的影响,以藏北地区那曲市罗玛镇高寒草地为研究对象,于2018年8月采用样方调查法对不同海拔梯度高寒草地植物高度、盖度、地上生物量及物种多样性沿海拔变化进行调查和统计分析,探讨藏北高寒草地物种多样性和地上生物量在海拔上的变化规律及二者的关系。研究表明:(1)植物盖度和地上生物量分别由海拔4 600 m的89.0%和64.7 g·m~(-2)降至4 800 m的67.3%和41.8 g·m~(-2),即植物盖度和地上生物量随海拔的升高呈线性降低的趋势;(2)不同海拔梯度间植物物种组成存在较大差异,高海拔段中旱生禾本科植物逐渐被耐寒喜湿植物取代;(3)物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数沿海拔呈单峰分布格局,而E.Pielou均匀度指数则呈U型分布格局;(4)物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数与地上生物量呈负二次函数关系;地上生物量与土壤温度呈指数增长趋势,与土壤湿度呈指数降低的趋势。研究结果初步揭示了藏北高原高寒草地不同海拔梯度物种多样性及其生物量的垂直分布差异,以及不同海拔梯度间水热组合差异对物种多样性及其生物量的影响。     

重庆四面山杉木群落物种多样性研究

通过对重庆四面山杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)林样地的调查,运用丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数、Simpson多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数,分析了该地区杉木群落物种多样性特征,将该地区现存杉木群落划分为2个群系组(杉木林和杉木针阔混交林),8个群系,10个群丛。结果表明,杉木群落可分为乔木层、灌木层和草本层。在杉木林群系组中,丰富度指数、多样性指数和均匀度指数均表现为灌木层>草本层>乔木层。在杉木针阔混交林群系组中,丰富度指数表现为灌木层>乔木层>草本层;多样性指数多数表现为灌木层>乔木层>草本层;均匀度指数变化较为复杂,没有统一规律。杉木群落各层的丰富度指数随海拔高度的升高总体上呈下降趋势。群落各层的多样性指数随海拔高度的升高在特定区间内表现出一定规律性:在海拔1180m以下低海拔区域,随海拔高度的升高呈下降趋势;在海拔1180～1351m范围内,随海拔高度的升高呈波动状态;而在海拔1351m以上高海拔区域,又呈下降趋势。群落各层的均匀度指数随海拔梯度变化较为复杂,未表现出明显规律。     

喀斯特山地草地植物群落物种数量特征及多样性分析

选择贵州典型喀斯特山地草地植物群落为研究对象,采用标准样地调查法,对不同海拔、坡向的植物群落数量特征、物种特性、以及物种丰富度、多样性、均匀性等特征展开研究,结果表明,（1）喀斯特山地草地植物群落密度随海拔升高呈显著增加趋势（F=20.600;P≤0.01）。植物群落中矛叶荩草（Arthraxon lanceolatus）和扭黄茅（Heteropogon contortus）种群在数量上占优势,同时矛叶荩草和扭黄茅种群密度随海拔升高呈现出增加趋势;但矛叶荩草种群密度在群落中的比例呈现出下降趋势,而扭黄茅种群密度在群落中的比例呈现出升高趋势。（2）喀斯特山地草地植物群落以禾本科（Gramineae）、菊科（Compositae）、蔷薇科（Rosaceae）、唇形科（Labiatae）为主;其中禾本科植物种类比例随海拔升高呈现出下降趋势,而菊科、蔷薇科、唇形科植物种类比例呈现出升高趋势。（3）喀斯特山地草地植物群落丰富度指数随海拔升高呈现出增加趋势,Simpson多样性指数、Shannon-Wiener多样性指数随海拔升高呈现先降后升趋势,Peilow均匀性指数随海拔升高呈现下降趋势。     

喀斯特山地草地植物群落结构与相似性特征

选择贵州典型喀斯特山地草地植物群落为研究对象,采用标准样地调查法,对不同海拔、坡向的植物群落结构、物种分布、种群习性等展开研究,结果表明,（1）喀斯特山地草地植物群落结构随海拔的升高,多年生草本植物种类比例逐渐降低,一年生草本植物和灌木植物没有明显的变化规律;喀斯特山地草地植物群落是以多年生草本为主,一年生草本和灌木为辅的植物群落结构类型。（2）喀斯特山地草地植物群落中,斑茅（Saccharum arundinaceum）、紫茎泽兰（Eupatorium adenophorum）、扭黄茅（Heteropogon contortus）、莠竹（Microstegium nudum）种群分别为不同海拔样点的优势种群,优势种群和次优种群以多年生草本植物主要。（3）喀斯特山地草地不同海拔间的植物群落相似性系数均在0~0.25之间,属于极不相似水平,海拔梯度间群落结构差异较大。喀斯特山地草地植物群落物种多样性较高,同时坡向对于植物群落相似性的影响较小,海拔是影响群落间差异的主要因素。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.