Hybrid H2/Al dust explosions in Siwek sphere

Explosion indices and explosion behaviour of Al dust/H₂/air mixtures were studied using standard 20 l sphere. The study was motivated by an explosion hazard occurring at some accidental scenarios considered now in ITER design (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor). During Loss-of-Vacuum or Loss-of-Coolant Accidents (LOCA/LOVA) it is possible to form inside the ITER vacuum vessel an explosible atmosphere containing fine Be or W dusts and hydrogen. To approach the Be/H₂ explosion problem, Be dust is substituted in this study by aluminium, because of high toxicity of Be dusts. The tested dust concentrations were 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1200 g/m3; hydrogen concentrations varied from 8 to 20 vol. % with 2% step. The mixtures were ignited by a weak electric spark. Pressure evolutions were recorded during the mixture explosions. In addition, the gaseous compositions of the combustion products were measured by a quadruple mass-spectrometer. The dust was involved in the explosion process at all hydrogen and dust concentrations even at the combination ‘8%/100 g/m3’. In all the other tests the explosion overpressures and the pressure rise rates were noticeably higher than those relevant to pure H₂/air mixtures and pure Al dust/air mixtures. At lower hybrid fuel concentrations the mixture exploded in two steps: first hydrogen explosion followed by a clearly separated Al dust explosion. With rising concentrations, the two-phase explosion regime transits to a single-phase regime where the two fuel components exploded together as a single fuel. In this regime both the hybrid explosion pressures and pressure rise rates are higher than either H₂ or Al ones. The two fuels compete for the oxygen; the higher the dust concentration, the more part of O2 it consumes (and the more H₂ remains in the combustion products). The test results are used to support DUST3D CFD code developed at KIT to model LOCA or LOVA scenarios in ITER.     

An influence of oxygen content in an oxidizing atmosphere on inhibitive action of fluorinated agents on a hydrogen flame

An experimental investigation of the influence of inhibitors of various chemical natures on flammability limits in mixtures H₂+oxidizer (O₂+N₂)–suppressant (C₂HF₅; CHF₃; C₄F₁₀; inhibitor AKM, which is a mixture of olefins) was carried out. Compositions of N₂ and O₂ with elevated (25 vol%) and reduced (15 vol%) oxygen concentrations and air were used as oxidizing atmospheres. Experiments were done at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Flammability limits were determined in a closed vessel of volume of 4.2 dm³ (internal diameter 20 cm). Mixtures were prepared immediately in the preliminary evacuated reaction vessel by partial pressures. The mixtures were ignited by an electrical spark of energy near 1 J in the center of the reaction vessel. A flame propagation was detected by a pressure transducer. Twelve flammability curves were measured, which allowed to compare effectiveness of the inhibitors at various oxygen contents in the atmosphere. A qualitative analysis of the obtained results was done, which showed an important role of an inhibitor regeneration.     

Post-explosion observations of experimental mine and laboratory coal dust explosions

The Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) conducted joint research on dust explosions by studying post-explosion dust samples. The samples were collected after full-scale explosions at the PRL Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM), and after laboratory explosions in the PRL 20-L chamber and the Fike 1 m³ chamber. The dusts studied included both high- and low-volatile bituminous coals. Low temperature ashing for 24 h at 515 °C was used to measure the incombustible content of the dust before and after the explosions. The data showed that the post-explosion incombustible content was always as high as, or higher than the initial incombustible content. The MSHA alcohol coking test was used to determine the amount of coked dust in the post-explosion samples. The results showed that almost all coal dust that was suspended within the explosion flame produced significant amounts of coke. Measurements of floor dust concentrations after LLEM explosions were compared with the initial dust loadings to determine the transport distance of dust during an explosion. All these data will be useful in future forensic investigations of accidental dust explosions in coal mines, or elsewhere.     

Experimental investigation of limiting oxygen concentration of hybrid mixtures

An investigation into the limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) of fifteen combustible dusts and methane, ethanol and isopropanol hybrid mixtures in the standard 20 L explosion chamber was performed. Three ignition energies (10 J, 2 kJ and 10 kJ) were used. The results show that a 10 J electrical spark ignition leads to significantly higher limiting oxygen concentration values than either 2 kJ or 10 kJ pyrotechnic igniters. This could be due to the “overdriving” effect of the chemical igniters, which produce a hot flame that virtually covers the entire explosion chamber during combustion. With respect to hybrid mixture investigation, the 20 L sphere was modified to allow the input of methane gas and flammable solvents. The limiting oxygen concentrations of the hybrid mixtures were found to be considerably lower than those of dust air mixtures when the relatively weaker spark igniter was used. There was no significant change in limiting oxygen concentration when the higher energy chemical igniters were used.     

A correlation of the lower flammability limit for hybrid mixtures

Hybrid mixtures are widely encountered in industries such as coal mines, paint factories, pharmaceutical industries, or grain elevators. Hybrid mixtures explosions involving dust and gas can cause great loss of lives and properties. The lower flammability limit (LFL) is a critical parameter when conducting a hazard assessment or developing mitigation methods for processes involving hybrid mixtures. Unlike unitary dust or gas explosions, which have been widely studied in past decades, only minimal research focuses on hybrid mixtures, and data concerning hybrid mixtures can rarely be found. Although methods to predict the LFL have been developed by using either Le Chatelier's Law, which was initially proposed for homogeneous gas mixtures, or the Bartknecht curve, which was adopted for only certain hybrid mixtures, significant deviations still remain. A more accurate correlation to predict an LFL for a hybrid mixtures explosion is necessary for risk assessment. This work focuses on the study of hybrid mixtures explosions in a 36 L dust explosion apparatus including mixtures of methane/niacin, methane/cornstarch, ethane/niacin and ethylene/niacin in air. By utilizing basic characteristics of unitary dust or gas explosions, a new formula is proposed to improve the prediction of the LFL of the mixture. The new formula is consistent with Le Chatelier's Law.     

Explosion properties of highly concentrated ozone gas

The explosive self-decomposition characteristics of gaseous ozone with a concentration of up to almost 100 vol% were quantitatively investigated using a closed system with an electric spark device. The lower self-decomposition (explosion) limit for ozone diluted with oxygen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure was 10–11 vol%, and so ozone at more than 10–11 vol% will lead to an explosive chain decomposition reaction leading to its complete conversion to oxygen in a vessel. The lower explosion limit shifts to a higher concentration with a decrease in pressure. The limit was about 80 vol% under a reduced pressure of 10 Torr. We also confirmed that explosion trigger energy (minimum ignition energy) is strongly dependent on ozone concentration and pressure. For example, the minimum trigger energy for 15 vol% ozone at a pressure of 76 Torr (about 220 mJ) was more than 20-fold that at atmospheric pressure (about 10 mJ), and that for 13 vol% ozone (about 580 mJ) was approximately 30 times higher than that for 20 vol% (about 20 mJ) at the same pressure of 76 Torr. Moreover, the physical characteristics of the trigger energy sources (e.g. spark gap and electrode tip angle) leading to the decomposition (explosion) of ozone were investigated under various conditions.     

Experimental research into effects of obstacle on methane-coal dust hybrid explosion

An experimental system including pressure transducer, data acquisition card, computer and electric spark ignition device was set up to research methane-coal dust hybrid explosions in closed tubes with different types of obstacles inside. Its dynamic response time was less than a millisecond and the test precision was 0.1%. The experimental results show that the obstacles had great effects on the explosion characteristics in the tube. Hollow obstacles linked with inner wall of the tube induced faster pressure rising than installed center blocked solid obstacles. Obstacles with more sharp corner induce more violent explosions. The most dangerous explosion occurred when spacing between obstacles almost equaled the inner diameter of the tube for the same size obstacle.     

Determination of the maximum effective burning velocity of dust–air mixtures in constant volume combustion

The reactivity of a combustible dust cloud is traditionally characterized by the so-called K_St value, defined as the maximum rate of pressure rise measured in constant volume explosion vessels, multiplied with the cube root of the vessel volume. The present paper explores the use of an alternative parameter, called the maximum effective burning velocity (u_eff,max), which also is derived from pressure–time histories obtained in constant volume explosion experiments. The proposed parameter describes the reactivity of fuel–air mixtures as a function of the dispersion-induced turbulence intensity. Procedures for estimating u_eff,max from tests in both spherical and cylindrical explosion vessels are outlined, and examples of calculated values for various fuel–air mixtures in closed vessels of different sizes and shapes are presented. Tested fuels include a mixture of 7.5% methane in air, and suspensions of 500 g/m³ cornstarch in air and 500 g/m³ coal dust in air. Three different test vessels have been used: a 20-l spherical vessel and two cylindrical vessels, 7 and 22 l. The results show that the estimated maximum effective burning velocities are less apparatus dependent than the corresponding K_St values.     

“Vybuchovy trojuhelnik”: A software tool for evaluation of explosibility of coal mine atmosphere

Rescue operations during mine fires or methane explosions are highly dangerous for rescue workers. The knowledge of the composition of the coal mine atmosphere and the calculations of its explosibility may help to increase the safety of the rescuers. In the Czech Republic, a system called “Mine Gas Laboratory” (DPL) has been used for these purposes. The DPL allows measurement of the composition of the mine atmosphere and transmits the data necessary for evaluation to the surface. Up to now the explosibility evaluation of the coal mine atmosphere has depended either on the rescuers’ experience or on software code calculation. The code called “Vybuchovy trojuhelnik” (explosion triangle) is a graphical computing system intended for fast assessment of explosibility of fuel–air mixture. This article introduces the code and describes two simple methods of explosibility evaluation. The first method is “explosion triangle analysis”—a graphical method based on empirical graphs transformed into equations. The second method uses thermodynamic calculation based on chemical balance dynamics and Gibbs and Helmholtz energy. According to the requirements of the Czech Bureau of Mining (CBU) and Central Mine Rescue Service (HBZS), the code solves the problems of explosion triangle for both standard and non-standard coal mine atmosphere compositions. Unfortunately, the atmosphere composition must be introduced manually due to the unknown format of the data transmitted from the old DPL model. On 1 September 2005, a project started to develop a new system for on-line monitoring and atmosphere explosibility evaluation. The system should be able to measure CO₂, O₂, CH₄, H₂ and CO concentrations as well as the wind speed, temperature and humidity. The “Vybuchovy trojuhelnik” code will be used as a basis for explosibility evaluation, and an on-line connection with the new model of DPL will be established.     

A review on hybrid mixture explosions: Safety parameters,explosion regimes and criteria,flame characteristics

The hybrid mixture of combustible dusts and flammable gases/vapours widely exist in various industries, including mining, petrochemical, metallurgical, textile and pharmaceutical. It may pose a higher explosion risk than gas/vapor or dust/mist explosions since the hybrid explosions can still be initiated even though both the gas and the dust concentration are lower than their lower explosion limit (LEL) values. Understanding the explosion threat of hybrid mixtures not only contributes to the inherent safety and sustainability of industrial process design, but promotes the efficiency of loss prevention and mitigation. To date, however, there is no test standard with reliable explosion criteria available to determine the safety parameters of all types of hybrid mixture explosions, nor the flame propagation and quenching mechanism or theoretical explanation behind these parameters. This review presents a state-of-the-art overview of the comprehensive understanding of hybrid mixture explosions mainly in an experimental study level; thereby, the main limitations and challenges to be faced are explored. The discussed main contents include the experimental measurement for the safety parameters of hybrid mixtures (i.e., explosion sensitivity and severity parameters) via typical test apparatuses, explosion regime and criterion of hybrid mixtures, the detailed flame propagation/quenching characteristics behind the explosion severities/sensitivities of hybrid mixtures. This work aims to summarize the essential basics of experimental studies, and to provide the perspectives based on the current research gaps to understand the explosion hazards of hybrid mixtures in-depth.     

Influences of coal dust components on the explosibility of hybrid mixtures of methane and coal dust

In order to study the influences of coal dust components on the explosibility of hybrid mixture of methane and coal dust, four kinds of coal dust with different components were selected in this study. Using the standard 20 L sphere, the maximum explosion pressure, explosion index and lower explosion limits of methane/coal dust mixtures were measured. The results show that the addition of methane to different kinds of coal dust can all clearly increase their maximum explosion pressure and explosion index and decrease their minimum explosion concentration. However, the increase in the maximum explosion pressure and explosion index is more significant for coal dust with lower volatile content, while the decrease in the minimum explosion concentration is more significant for coal dust with higher volatile content. It is concluded that the influence of methane on the explosion severity is more pronounced for coal dust with lower volatile content, but on ignition sensitivity it is more pronounced for coal dust with higher volatile content. Bartknecht model for predicting the lower explosion limits of methane/coal dust mixture has better applicability than Le Chatelier model and Jiang model. Especially, it is more suitable for hybrid mixtures of methane and high volatile coal dust.     

Explosion of lycopodium-nicotinic acid–methane complex hybrid mixtures

With the terms “complex hybrid mixtures”, we mean mixtures made of two or more combustible dusts mixed with flammable gas or vapors in air (or another comburent).In this work, the flammability and explosion behavior of selected complex hybrid mixtures was studied. In particular, we investigated mixtures of nicotinic acid, lycopodium and methane. We performed explosion tests in the 20-L explosion vessel at different overall (nicotinic plus lycopodium) dust concentrations, nicotinic acid/lycopodium ratios, and methane concentrations.An exceptional behavior (in terms of unexpected values of rate of pressure rise and pressure) was found for the complex hybrid mixtures containing lycopodium and nicotinic acid in equal amounts. This mixture was found to be much more reactive than all the other dust mixtures, whatever the dust concentration and the methane content.     

Influence of different ignition delay times on the pressure rise rate in hybrid mixture explosions in the 20-L sphere

For the development of a standardized method for measuring the explosion safety characteristics of combustible hybrid dust/vapor mixtures, the influence of the ignition delay time needs to be investigated. The ignition delay time, defined as the time between the injection of dust and the activation of the ignition source, is related to the turbulence of the mixture and thus to the pressure rise rate. The ignition source for pure vapors, however, has to be activated in a quiescent atmosphere according to the standards. Nevertheless, when measuring the explosion safety characteristics of hybrid mixtures, it is important that the dust be in suspension around the igniter. Like pure dust/air mixtures, hybrid dust/vapor/air mixtures need to be ignited in a turbulent atmosphere to keep the dust in suspension.This work will therefore investigate the influence of ignition delay times on the severity of hybrid explosions. It was generally found that at shorter ignition delay times, (dp/dt)_ex increased due to higher turbulence and decreases as the dust sinks to the bottom of the 20 L-sphere. This effect is more pronounced for hybrid mixtures with higher vapor content compared to dust content.     

Electrostatic spark ignition of sensitive dust clouds of MIE<1 mJ

Accidental electrostatic sparks in industrial plant producing/handling powders/dusts occur whenever a non-earthed electrically conducting object has been charged tribo-electrically to a high voltage and suddenly discharges its energy to earth via an air gap of appropriate length. When assessing the electrostatic spark ignition hazard in an industrial plant, the parameters of prime concern are the capacitances C of electrically conducting plant items that may become charged tribo-electrically, the voltages U to which they may become charged, and the minimum electric spark ignition energies (MIE) of the dust clouds of concern. Whenever , there is a possibility of accidental electrostatic spark ignition.

Current standard apparatuses for determining MIE of dust clouds have a lower spark energy limit of 2–3 mJ. In an investigation by the present authors, discussed in detail elsewhere, a new spark generator capable of producing synchronized capacitive sparks of energies down to the order of 0.01 mJ was developed and used for testing a selection of ignition-sensitive powders for MIE. Several of the MIEs found were 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than the lower energy limit of current standard test apparatus. Other experiments by the present authors, also reported elsewhere, have shown that quite low MIEs can be found for some dusts even with a less optimal synchronization mechanism, which may occur accidentally in practice.

The main object of the present paper is to discuss possible practical concerns arising from the finding that clouds in air of some dusts can have very low MIEs. In such cases, one may have to pay attention to even minor C values, i.e. minor plant items. Alternatively, with larger C values, even quite low voltages may give rise to hazardous spark discharges.

However, some types of fine metal powders of low MIEs will quite readily form electrically conductive layers on the solid surfaces with which they make contact. Hence, electrostatic spark ignition inside process equipment containing such dusts may be less probable than in the case of process equipment containing non-conducting dusts of correspondingly low MIEs.

There may be a need for a new standard test method for determination of MIEs of dust clouds in the <1 mJ range.     

Study of the severity of hybrid mixture explosions and comparison to pure dust-air and vapour-air explosions

The explosion behaviour of heterogeneous/homogeneous fuel-air (hybrid) mixtures is here analysed and compared to the explosion features of heterogeneous fuel-air and homogeneous fuel-air mixtures separately.Experiments are performed to measure the pressure history, deflagration index and flammability limits of nicotinic acid/acetone-air mixtures in a standard 20 L Siwek bomb adapted to vapour-air mixtures. Literature data are also used for comparison.The explosion tests performed on gas-air mixtures in the same conditions as explosion tests of dust-air mixtures, show that the increase in explosion severity of dust/gas-air mixtures has to be addressed to the role of initial level of turbulence prior to ignition.At a fixed value of the equivalence ratio, by substituting the dust to the flammable gas in a dust/gas-air mixture the explosion severity decreases. Furthermore, the most severe conditions of dust-gas/air mixtures is found during explosion of gas-air mixture at stoichiometric concentration.     

多元可燃性气体爆炸压力与中间产物发射光谱特性的耦合研究

工业生产中爆炸事故往往是由多元可燃气体与空气混合后遇到明火而引起的，为研究乙烷（C₂H₆）、乙烯（C₂H₄）、一氧化碳（CO）、氢气（H₂）对甲烷爆炸特性的影响，选取多组分可燃气体甲烷爆炸压力特性和自由基发射光谱的影响进行研究，利用陕西省工业过程安全与应急救援工程技术研究中心重点实验室搭建的多功能球形气体/粉尘爆炸实验装置和单色仪进行爆炸实验测试，同步采集时间—压力曲线、中间产物（OH，CH₂O）的发射光谱信号，考察多组分可燃气体浓度对甲烷爆炸压力特性和中间产物的影响。结果表明:在富氧状态下，多组分可燃气体加剧了甲烷—空气混合体系的爆炸剧烈程度，随着体系中氧气含量的减少、由富氧状态变为贫氧状态、促进作用逐渐减弱转变为阻尼作用，爆炸压力特性与中间产物发射光谱参数的影响规律基本保持一致，均呈高度正相关；多元混合体系爆炸剧烈程度越大，自由基发射光谱达到峰值的速度越快，自由基更早、更快的积累是加剧爆炸程度的原因之一。     

Ignitability characteristics of aluminium and magnesium dusts that are generated during the shredding of post-consumer wastes

The authors investigated the ignitability of aluminium and magnesium dusts that are generated during the shredding of post-consumer waste. The relations between particle size and the minimum explosive concentration, the minimum ignition energy, the ignition temperature of the dust clouds, etc. the relation between of oxygen concentration and dust explosion, the effect of inert substances on dust explosion, etc. were studied experimentally.

The minimum explosive concentration increased exponentially with particle size. The minimum explosive concentrations of the sample dusts were about 170 g/m³ (aluminium: 0–8 μm) and 90 g/m³ (magnesium: 0–20 μm). The minimum ignition energy tended to increase with particle size. It was about 6 mJ for the aluminium samples and 4 mJ for the magnesium samples. The ignition temperature of dust clouds was about 750 °C for aluminium and about 520 °C for magnesium. The lowest concentrations of oxygen to produce a dust explosion were about 10% for aluminium and about 8% for magnesium. A large mixing ratio (more than about 50%) of calcium oxide or calcium carbonate was necessary to decrease the explosibility of magnesium dust. The experimental data obtained in the present investigation will be useful for evaluating the explosibility of aluminium and magnesium dusts generated in metal recycling operations and thus for enhancing the safety of recycling plants.     

Fast flame speeds and rates of pressure rise in the initial period of gas explosions in large L/D cylindrical enclosures

Flame speeds and rates of pressure rise for gaseous explosions in a 76 mm diameter closed cylindrical vessel of large length to diameter ratio (L/D = 21.6), were quantitatively investigated. Methane, propane, ethylene and hydrogen mixtures with air were studied across their respective flammability ranges. Ignition was affected at one end of the vessel. Very fast flame speeds corresponding to high rates of pressure rise were measured in the initial 5–10% of the total explosion time. During this period 20–35% of the maximum explosion pressure was produced, and over half of the flame propagation distance was completed. Previous work has concentrated on the later stages of this type of explosion; the development of tulip flames, pressure wave effects and transition to turbulence. The initial fast phase is very important and should dominate considerations in pressure relief vent design for vessels of large L/D.     

Measuring the violence of dust explosions with the “20 l sphere” and with the standard “ISO 1 m vessel”: Systematic comparison and analysis of the discrepancies

On the basis of a systematic testwork with a number of different dusts, the explosion indices as determined within the 20 l sphere and with the ISO-VDI 1 m³ vessel have been compared. The repeatability has been assessed and since some systematic deviations appear a refined physical analysis of the explosion processes is developed. It appears in particular that the cube root law supposed to link both vessels is not verified. A striking illustration of this appears when a dust with a significant explosion severity inside the 20 l sphere is not even explosible in the larger vessel. It is strongly suggested that the ignition energy is forcing very significantly the explosion in the smaller vessel inducing several tens of Celsius degrees of preheating. It is shown also that the inner level of turbulence is decreasing very fast in the 20 l sphere during the flame development so that difficult-to-ignite mixtures would tend to burn at a lower combustion rate. It is further demonstrated that the major bias between the chambers can be explained and quantified with these elements. A correlation with the standard 1 m³ vessel and a grid of interpretation of the data is proposed.     

Explosibility of cork dust in methane/air mixtures

Explosibility studies of hybrid methane/air/cork dust mixtures were carried out in a near-spherical 22.7 L explosibility test chamber, using 2500 J pyrotechnic ignitors. The suspension dust burned as methane/air/dust clouds and the uniformity of the cork dust dispersion inside the chamber was evaluated through optical dust probes and during the explosion the pressure and the temperature evolution inside the reactor were measured. Tested dust particles had mass median diameter of 71.3 μm and the covered dust cloud concentration was up to 550 g/m³. Measured explosions parameters included minimum explosion concentration, maximum explosion pressures and maximum rate of pressure rise. The cork dust explosion behavior in hybrid methane/air mixtures was studied for atmospheres with 1.98 and 3.5% (v/v) of methane. The effect of methane content on the explosions characteristic parameters was evaluated. The conclusion is that the risk and explosion danger rises with the increase of methane concentration characterized by the reduction of the minimum dust explosion concentration, as methane content increases in the atmosphere. The maximum explosion pressure is not very much sensitive to the methane content and only for the system with 3.5% (v/v) of methane it was observed an increase of maximum rate of pressure rise, when compared with the value obtained for the air/dust system.