The role of secondary particulates in European emission abatement strategies

Economic assessments have indicated that the greatest benefits of reducing atmospheric emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds in Europe come from the resulting reductions in secondary particulate concentrations. For comparison with abatement strategies devised to reduce exceedance of critical loads for acidification, this paper, therefore, considers optimisation of emission abatement strategies to reduce secondary particulate concentrations and minimise human exposure. It is seen that this changes the relative emphasis between some countries in reducing their emissions, and also places less importance on emissions of ammonia from agriculture relative to those of SO₂ and NO_x. The effect of placing emphasis on improvement in the more highly polluted areas of Europe is also examined by imposing a threshold. The benefits of the strategies in terms of ecosystem protection and human exposure to particulates are presented for all scenarios studied. The scenarios are also interpreted in terms of a blame matrix for human exposure to secondary particulates.     

Assessing the effects of domestic and international energy scenarios and emission reduction strategies on acidification in Finland

An integrated model system was developed and used to assess the effects of alternative energy production scenarios and reduction policies on acidification of lakes and forest soils in Finland. The analysis covered different energy scenarios and resulting emissions of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides in Finland, as well as ammonia emissions with various control requirements. In addition, emission reduction scenarios of varied ambition levels in the bordering areas of Finland and in other parts of Europe were included in the analysis. The impacts of the different scenarios were quantified with exceedances of critical loads for acidification and with the total areas where the critical loads are exceeded. The possibilities for reducing the areas with critical load exceedances with national or bilateral measures were investigated. The differences in areas at risk, if depositions from domestic and nearby sources are estimated with a regional model and point-source databases or with a continental scale model and coarser-scale emission data, were analyzed. The reasons for the differences and the implications for national-level assessment are discussed.     

Model Assessment of Air-Pollution in Prague

Results of relatively simple gaussian dispersion model are presented. This model, developed in the beginning of this decade, is suitable mainly for determination of spatial distributions of annual mean concentrations of such kinds of air-pollution as sulphur dioxide (SO₂), mixture of nitrogen oxides (NO_x) or suspended particulate matter (SPM) from all types of emission sources located within the city - point sources, line sources and area sources. Model has been used in years 1994, 1996 and 1998 to assess the air-pollution distributions of the above mentioned kinds in the Prague area and the development of the air quality state. It contributed to the decision making process when possible impact of some changes in traffic system or in system of domestic heating, for example, has been investigated. In this contribution, behaviour of sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and mixture of nitrogen oxides (NO_x) ground concentration distributions are analyzed with respect to changing emission situation in Prague in recent years. Results show that SO₂ ground concentration level decreases mainly due to changes in local heating methods and type of fuel used. Different trend can be seen in NO_x ground concentrations thanks to rapid increase in the traffic density.     

Approaches to standardization of atmospheric pollution undergoing long-range and transboundary transport

The authors consider some possible ways of regulating three types of atmospheric emission of pollutants:

1. emission of substances causing pollution of the natural environment on the global scale (global pollutants);
2. emission of substances causing pollution on a regional scale, most often including territories of several countries (international pollutants);
3. emission of substances causing negative effects in a relatively limited region, for example within border area of two adjoining countries.

Substances (gaseous, as a rule) of a long life-time in the atmosphere that can contaminate natural media on a global scale irrespective of the place of emission refer to the first class of pollutants that are subject to emission regulation at an international level and to quota establishement for individual countries. They are carbon dioxide, freon, krypton-85. Various approaches to determining permissible emission and to quota establishing are discussed in the paper. The second group includes substances of a limited, yet rather long, life-time whose emission intensity makes a notable contribution to environmental pollution of a large region including territories of several countries. Here it is needed to regulate internationally not the atmospheric emission as it is but pollutant transport over national boundaries (sulphur and nitrogen oxides, pesticides, heavy metals). The third group includes substances of relatively short time of life producing local effects. Emission regulation in such cases should be based upon bilateral agreements with due account of countries' mutual interests.     

Indoor Air Quality at Salarjung Museum, Hyderabad, India

Deterioration of art objects at Salarjung Museum has been noticed such as blackening of white and pink pigments of Indian miniature paintings and other objects like pigments, paints, varnishes, coatings, silver ware, zari works, textiles, which are displayed in museum galleries. The cause of deterioration of the artifacts is attributed to air pollution. The outdoor air pollution levels with respect to suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ammonia, aldehydes and oxidants are observed to be high when compared with background environment and ambient air quality standards for sensitive areas. The indoor air quality levels in terms of various parameters including temperature and relative humidity (RH) observed to be more than the threshold limits. The climatic conditions coupled with polluted indoor air are the main causes for the deterioration of art objects. Hence remedial measures are suggested to avoid further deterioration of objects.     

Emission Inventory for an Industrial Area of India

The paper presents an emission inventory for Cochin, which is a highly industrialized area situated in the southern part of India. A proper emission inventory is very important for planning pollution control programmes, particularly in coastal sites like Cochin, where environmental situations are of growing concern owing to their typical meterorological conditions. In a systematic way the sources are broadly classified as point, line and area sources. The data on emissions from industries, fuel consumption for vehicular and domestic activities along with the respective emission factors are used for estimating the emissions. The study reveals that industrial sources are mainly responsible for emissions of particulate matter, oxides of sulphur and ammonia in the region. Automobiles are the prime sources of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide emitting 95%, 77% and 70% respectively of their total emissions, while the contribution from domestic sources is not very significant.     

Modelling and assessing inter-regional trade of CO2 emission reduction units

A cost-efficient way to allocate carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission reductions among countries or regions is to harmonise their marginal reduction costs. This could be achieved by a market of emission reduction units (ERUs). To model such a market, we use a multi-regional MARKAL-MACRO model. It gives insights into the consequences of co-ordinating CO₂ abatement on regional energy systems and economies. As a numerical application, we assess the establishment of a market of ERUs among three European countries for curbing their CO₂ emissions.     

Roadside Concentration of Gaseous and Particulate Matter Pollutants and Risk Assessment in Dar-Es-Salaam, Tanzania

This study used manual air sampling method to assess the contribution of road traffic to air pollution level in Dar-es-Salaam City, Tanzania. Samples were collected from 11 different sites. Parameters measured were: sulphur dioxide using pararosaniline method, nitrogen dioxide using saltzman method, particulate matter and particulate lead using filtration method and atomic absorption spectrometric method, respectively. Results showed that hourly average sulphur dioxide concentration range from 127 to 1385 g/m³. The measured values of sulphur dioxide were above the recommended WHO guidelines with an hourly objective value of 350 g/m³ at 87% of the sampling sites. The hourly average nitrogen dioxide concentration ranged from 18 to 53 g/m³. The maximum hourly nitrogen dioxide concentration at 53 g/m³ was below the WHO guideline value of 200 g/m³. The hourly average suspended particulate matter (SPM) ranged from 98 to 1161 g/m³, exceeding the recommended value of 230 g/m³ by WHO at 87% of the sampling sites. The hourly average lead concentration was found to range from 0.60 to 25.6 g/m³, exceeding again the WHO guideline value of 1.5 g/m³at 83% of the sampling sites. Results predicted by Gaussian model when compared with the measured values were found to have a correlation coefficient of 0.8, signifying a good correlation. The risk assessment was undertaken considering the people who spend a significant portion of their time near the roads, such as the Uhuru primary school pupils and the adult population who reside by the roadside. The unit risk realised was 18.2 × 10^–6 for adult population and 2.2 × 10^–6 for pupils, both scenarios showing risk higher than the United Sates of America Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) acceptable limit of 1× 10^–6. Considering the magnitude of the problem at hand, this study recommends an introduction of mandatory emission tests of SPM, lead and sulphur dioxide (SO₂). The study further recommends the introduction of continuous and/or regular air quality monitoring and the use non-leaded petrol in Tanzania.     

Reporting emissions of greenhouse gases in Canada

Non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gases are considered in Canada's National Report on Climate Change: Actions to Meet Commitments Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. By including all major greenhouse gases and their anthropogenic sources and sinks using best available science, the Report provides a practical illustration of the comprehensive approach policy to implementing the Convention's requirements. In addition to carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion, the Report includes information on other sources and sinks for carbon dioxide, and for methane and nitrous oxide. Other gases considered include polyflourocarbons, hydroflourocarbons, and the primary tropospheric ozone precursors, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds. Current Global Warming Potential indices are used to compare and integrate the best estimates of climate change impacts of the major greenhouse gases. The presentation of emission data is intended to be transparent and comparable. The relative quality of the data for various gases and sources is indicated. The existence of environmental, economic, and other benefits to limiting emissions of all greenhouse gases, in addition to carbon dioxide, should be recognized. Continuing assessments and actions on non-carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions, both nationally and internationally, are suggested.     

Air Quality Status of an Open Pit Mining Area in India

This investigation presents the assessment of ambient air quality carried out at an open pit coal mining area in Orissa state of India. The 24-h average concentrations of suspended particulate matter (SPM), respirable particulate matter (RPM, particles of less than 10 m aerodynamic diameter), sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) were determined at regular interval throughout one year at 13 monitoring stations in residential area and four stations in mining/industrial area. During the study period, the 24-h and annual average SPM and RPM concentrations exceeded the respective standards set in the Indian ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) protocol in most of the residential and industrial areas. However, the 24-h and annual average concentrations of SO₂ and NO_x were well within the prescribed limit of the NAAQS in both residential and industrial areas. A management strategy is formulated for effective control of particulate matter at source and other mitigative measures are recommended including implementation of green belts around the sensitive areas.     

二氧化氮标准物质校准氮氧化物分析仪的差异性

采用一氧化氮、二氧化氮标准物质对化学发光法的氮氧化物分析仪进行校准,并分析校准系统中零气源、连接管路、动态气体校准仪和标准物质对二氧化氮校准的影响,发现一氧化氮标准物质中的二氧化氮杂质会影响氮氧化物的校准结果,得出氮氧化物分析仪校准需要进行二氧化氮补偿的结论;同时,通过比较国产二氧化氮和进口二氧化氮标准物质产生的校准结果,得出进口二氧化氮标准物质较国产二氧化氮标准物质的稀释结果具有更好的稳定性和一致性。     

Reduction of SO2 Emissions by Ammonia Gas During Staged Combustion

To reduce SO2 emissions, ammonia gas was injected into a coal-fired fluidized-bed combustor under staged commbustion condition. The combustor was 2 m high with a 30 cm static bed height and a freeboard height of 170 cm. The ammonia gas was injected at 52 cm and 65 cm above the distributor, which had a temperature of ca. 700 °C, by an uncooled stainless-steel tube injector. The experiments investigated the effects of ammonia gas injection on sulphur dioxide emissions at staged conditions, varying the: (i) excess air level, (ii) secondary air ratio, (iii) fluidizing velocity, (iv) ammonia injection position, and (v) the ammonia : sulphur dioxide molar ratio.A maximum reduction of 66% in SO2 emissions was found at 40% excess air, 65 : 35 staging, 1.5 m/s fluidizing velocity, 65 cm injection height, and an NH3 : SO2 molar ratio of 1.2. The onset of SO2 reduction occurred at an NH3 : SO2 ratio of 0.5. The fluidizing velocity, excess air, level of staging, and ammonia injection height all have a significant influence on SO2 reduction.It is difficult to determine how the SO2 reduction varies with the operating conditions when ammonia is injected in the high temperature zone of the combustor. As sulphur oxides-ammonia reactions are low temperature reactions, the findings confirm the occurrence of reactions above the freeboard or near the exit to the cyclone.     

An Integrated Assessment by Models for Energy Systems Analysis and Life-Cycle Assessment with a Case Study of Advanced Fossil-Fired Power Plants in China

We developed an integrated assessment (IA) using models for energy systems analysis and life-cycle assessment (LCA). Based on this assessment framework, we developed cost-benefit analysis (CBA) case studies for a hypothetical project designed to introduce advanced fossil-fired power generation technologies in China. Our MARKAL model for Japan confirmed that radical reductions (i.e., 80 % by 2050) of carbon dioxide (CO₂) could be attained from energy systems alone and that credit for emission allowances was required. We evaluated life-cycle costs and emissions of carbon dioxide, sulfur oxide, and nitrogen oxide gases for the energy technologies using an LCA model. Further, we applied a power generation planning model for six Chinese grids to provide a power mix structure, potentially producing credit by installing fossil-fired power generation technology and by using baseline grid emission factors with an average cost of electricity. Finally, by using dynamic emission reductions and additional costs from the two models, we conducted case studies of CBA for a hypothetical project to install the technologies in China. This was accomplished by evaluating emission reductions in monetary terms and by applying a life-cycle impact assessment model. A unique feature of our IA is its dynamic (time-varying) assessment of costs and benefits.     

Reduction of SO2 emissions by ammonia gas during unstaged combustion

The reduction of SO₂ by the addition of ammonia gas has been studied in a 2 m high fluidized bed combustor having a 30 cm static bed height and a freeboard height of 170 cm. Ammonia gas was injected at 52 cm above the distributor where the temperature is ca. 700° C by an uncooled stainless steel tube injector. Experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of amminia gas injection on sulphur dioxide emissions at unstaged conditions of: (i) excess air level, (ii) NH₃:SO₂ molar ratio, (iii) fluidizing velocity and (iv) bed height.A maximum reduction of 75% in SO₂ emissions was found at 40% excess air, at an NH₃:SO₂ molar ratio of 5.4. The onset of SO₂ reduction occurred at an NH₃:SO₂ ratio of 1.5 However, the most effective ratio was found to be between 3 and 5. Fluidizing velocity and bed height were also found to have significant influence on SO₂ reduction.It is difficult to determine how the SO₂ reduction varied with operating conditions. When ammonia is added in the main combustor zone, the temperature is much higher than that required for the occurrence of sulphur dioxide-ammonia and sulphur trioxide-ammonia reactions. However, this paper points out the significance of ammonia addition in the reduction of sulphur dioxide.     

Discharge permit market and farm management nexus: an approach for eutrophication control in small basins with low-income farmers

The economic concerns of low-income farmers are barriers to nutrient abatement policies for eutrophication control in surface waters. This study brings up a perspective that focuses on integrating multiple-pollutant discharge permit markets with farm management practices. This aims to identify a more economically motivated waste load allocation (WLA) for non-point sources (NPS). For this purpose, we chose the small basin of Zrebar Lake in western Iran and used the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) for modeling. The export coefficients (ECs), effectiveness of best management practices (BMPs), and crop yields were calculated by using this software. These variables show that low-income farmers can hardly afford to invest in BMPs in a typical WLA. Conversely, a discharge permit market presents a more cost-effective solution. This method saves 64% in total abatement costs and motivates farmers by offering economic benefits. A market analysis revealed that nitrogen permits mostly cover the trades with the optimal price ranging from $6 to $30 per kilogram. However, phosphorous permits are limited for trading, and their price exceeds $60 per kilogram. This approach also emphasizes the establishment of a regional institution for market monitoring, dynamic pricing, fair fund reallocation, giving information to participants, and ensuring their income. By these sets of strategies, a WLA on the brink of failure can turn into a cost-effective and sustainable policy for eutrophication control in small basins.     

Air pollution impact on Swedish forests-present evidence and future development

Research during the last five years has provided evidence that there is a long-term influence of air pollutants on forest ecosystems also in the southern parts of North Europe. High loads of acidity, sulphur and nitrogen affect soil conditions, trees as well as other organisms.In South and West Sweden changes in soil acidity (pH) have been registered during the last 60 years. The changes not only occur in the humus layer, but also in the lower part of the mineral soil. These latter changes cannot be explained without the action of strong acids originating from anthropogenic air pollution.Losses of elements like magnesium, calcium and potassium occur and phosphorus become less available to plants. An increased demand for plant mutrients is a consequence of the increased fall-out of nitrogen compounds. Nutrient imbalances of trees seem to be the result. Increased sensitivity to frost and drought as well as insects and pathogens is expected.The increased soil acidity and the eutrophication of soils caused by the continued input of nitrogen contributes to changes in plant communities.If we assume that there are no changes in deposition, land-use and management of the forests in SW Sweden, the better forest soils (brown forest soils) will have a continued acidification of humus and mineral soil layers resulting in high levels of aluminium and low levels of calcium. This will create a critical situation for roots and mycorrhiza. Soils that are already acid may not become more acidified, but will still be subject to losses of essential elements.Critical deposition levels or loads of acids (hydrogen ions) and nitrogen rendering no further deterioration of soils and leaching have been set to 0.1–0.2 keq·ha^-1yr^-1 for S Scandinavia (present level 1 keq·ha^-1yr^-1). For nitrogen the critical load is 10–20 kg N ha^-1yr^-1 (present range 10–25 kg ha^-1yr^-1).Contribution from Fourth World Wilderness Congress — Acid Rain Symposium, Denver (Estes Park), Colorado, September 11–18, 1987.     

机场大气污染物高时间分辨率排放清单计算方法研究

通过研究机场大气污染物排放特征,结合我国相关排放政策及规范,以排放因子法为主要方法,设计了可建立机场高时间分辨率大气污染物排放清单的计算方法,以期为机场大气污染物排放实时监管提供研究基础。该方法针对飞机发动机和地面保障设备(GSE),实现了颗粒物、二氧化硫、氮氧化物等大气污染物和温室气体的半小时级别排放量计算。通过收集整理北京首都国际机场日航班计划与GSE运作情况实际数据,计算并建立了高时间分辨率的排放清单,验证了计算方法的可行性。随后,从活动水平误差和排放因子适用性两方面,对清单进行了不确定性分析,并通过计算结果对机场排放特征进行了分析,提出了减排建议。     

一氧化氮标准气体中二氧化氮杂质FTIR定量方法研究及标气质量分析

一氧化氮标准气体在我国空气质量监测工作中广泛用于氮氧化物分析仪的校准,标准气体的质量对环境空气中氮氧化物的测量结果也有着显著的影响.利用傅里叶变换红外光谱仪建立了一套精确测量低浓度二氧化氮方法,并对一氧化氮标准气体产品中二氧化氮杂质进行了测量.结果显示有少部分样品中存在较高浓度的二氧化氮杂质.进一步讨论了可能导致一氧化...     

Estimation of Critical Loads of Acidity for Lakes in Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada

The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers (NEG/ECP) adopted the Acid Rain Action Plan in June 1998, and issued a series of action items to support its work toward a reduction of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions in northeastern North America. One of these action items was the preparation of an updated critical load map using data from lakes in the NEG/ECP area. Critical load maps provide a more complete index of the surface water sensitivity to acidification. Combined sulfur and nitrogen critical loads and deposition exceedances were computed using Henriksen's Steady-State Water Chemistry (SSWC) model. Results show that 28% of all 2053 lakes studied have a critical load of 20 kg/ha/year or less, making them vulnerable to acid deposition. Emission reductions, and more specifically SO₂ emission reductions have proven beneficial because critical loads were exceeded in 2002 for 12.3% of all studied lakes. Those lakes are located in the more sensitive areas where geology is carbonate-poor. Of these lakes, 2.9% will never recover even with a complete removal of SO₄ deposition. Recovery from acidification for the remaining 9.4% of the lakes will require additional emission SO₂ reductions.