An integrated analysis of production costs and net energy balance of biofuels

Up to now, the “low” price of oil has prevented the development of alternative fuels but with the current high price and increasing scarcity, biofuels could become an economically attractive alternative. However, the economic assessment of biofuels has to take into account total production costs, including impact on agriculture, and the energy balance of first generation alternative fuels (biodiesel and bioethanol). Moreover, plans to produce biofuels from agriculture should not be achieved without considering the latest developments and reforms of the common agricultural policy, which promotes a change towards sustainable rural development based on multifunctional agriculture. From the analysis carried out, it emerges that first generation biofuels do not seem to be the best solution because of high production cost, limited land availability and low net energy balance. Furthermore, only a small quantity of biofuels can be produced as alternative to fossil oil because an incremental production will lead to the rising of agri-food prices. Only second generation biofuels could be a possible solution, although they still require much supplementary research and analysis.     

中国城乡居民食品消费变化趋势分析

基于能值理论，对比动物性荤食和植物性素食重量形态、能量形态和能值形态的数量关系，定量分析我国城乡居民食品消费的变化趋势及特征。研究表明: 2010年我国城乡居民热量、重量和能值形态的动物性荤食分别占食品消费总量的1190%、911%和7029%，一方面我国城乡居民食品消费中动物性荤食的重量形态和能量形态的数值远低于其植物性素食，说明我国城乡居民食品消费仍然以素食消费为主，另一方面其动物性荤食的能值形态数值已经远超其植物性素食，表明其居民食物消费方式已经向营养均衡多样化方向演替，畜牧业的健康发展是保障居民食品消费和国家粮食安全的重要部分。2010年城镇和农村居民荤食消费能值分别为110 E+15和631 E+14 sej，分别是其素食消费的172和079倍，说明我国城乡居民食品消费整体还表现出二元性特征，按城乡居民荤素食品结构变化演变趋势可推断城乡食品消费品质相差约20 a，并且近年来城乡人均食品消费结构差异程度呈逐年增加的趋势，同时农民且有农产品生产者和消费者的双重身份，因此相对而言农村居民对食品消费的增长趋势更加稳定。又由于相同数量的动物性荤食在生产过程中需要占用更多的农业资源，因此我国城乡居民食品消费变化对其农业生产和粮食安全生产必将产生更大的压力     

Good Food,Good Intentions: Where Pro-sustainability Arguments Get Stale in US Food Documentaries

Focusing on recent documentaries about sustainable agriculture in the US—Food, Inc., The Garden, Fresh, and Farmageddon—this paper examines how pro-sustainable food arguments fail to merge environmentalism and environmental justice. By framing their approach to sustainable food production around the normative issue of “good food” for capitalist consumers, such documentaries ignore questions about community and cultural conceptions of farmers. In the process the films promote a problematic vision of the white family farm. As a consequence, these films limit a reimagining of alternative food systems, the roles for diverse actors within those systems, and possibilities for eaters beyond “voting with your fork.” Several exceptions, most notably The Garden, are used to suggest how cinema might radically re-envision participation in alternative forms of agriculture.     

Climate change/variability and food systems: evidence from the Afram Plains,Ghana

While there are many studies of the impacts of climate change and variability on food production, few studies are devoted to a comprehensive assessment of impacts on food systems. Results of a survey of food systems and household adaptation strategies in three communities in the Afram Plains, Ghana, reveal how extreme climatic events affect rural food production, transportation, processing and storage. Adaptation strategies implemented by the three communities during past droughts serve as a foundation for planning responses to future climate change. Results of this study suggest that food security in this region—where droughts and floods are expected to become more severe due to climate change—could be enhanced by increasing farm-based storage facilities; improving the transportation system, especially feeder roads that link food production areas and major markets; providing farmers with early warning systems; extending credit to farmers; and the use of supplementary irrigation. This study also indicates that some cultural practices, particularly those that prohibit the consumption of certain foods, may reduce the resilience of some individuals and ethnic groups to food system disruptions. Understanding the local context and the responses of households is critical to the development of effective strategies for reducing the potential adverse impacts of climatic change on food security in rural Ghana.     

Biofuels and their connections with the sustainable development goals: a bibliometric and systematic review

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Renewable energy is crucial nowadays, and among the options, biofuels are evidenced as a promising alternative to reduce the dependence of fossil...     

Use patterns of natural resources supporting livelihoods of smallholder communities and implications for climate change adaptation in Zimbabwe

Declining crop and livestock production due to a degrading land resource base and changing climate among other biophysical and socio-economic constraints, is increasingly forcing rural households in Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa to rely on common natural resource pools (CNRPs) to supplement their household food and income. Between 2011 and 2013, we combined farmer participatory research approaches, remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) to (1) understand the contribution of CNRPs to household food and income in Dendenyore and Ushe smallholder communities in Hwedza District, eastern Zimbabwe and (2) assess changes of the CNRPs in both space and time, and their implications on climate change adaptation. Across study sites, wetlands and woodlands were ranked as the most important CNRPs. Extraction and use patterns of products from the different pools differed among households of different resource endowment. Resource-constrained households (RG3) sold an average of 183 kg household^?1 year^?1 of wild loquats fruits (Uapaca kirkiana), realising about US$48, while resource-endowed farmers (RG1) had no need to sale any. The RG3 households also realised approximately US$70 household^?1 year^?1 from sale of crafts made from water reeds (Phragmites mauritianus). Empirical data closely supported communities’ perceptions that CNRPs had declined significantly in recent years compared with two to three decades ago. More than 60 % of the respondents perceived that the availability of natural resources drawn from wetlands and woodlands, often used for food, energy and crafts, has decreased markedly since the 1980s. Classification of land cover in a GIS environment indicated that CNRPs declined between 1972 and 2011, supporting farmers’ perceptions. Overall, woodlands declined by 37 % in both communities, while the total area under wetlands decreased by 29 % in Ushe, a drier area and 49 % in Dendenyore, a relatively humid area. The over-reliance in CNRPs by rural communities could be attributed to continued decline in crop yields linked to increased within-season rainfall variability, and the absence of alternative food and income sources. This suggests limited options for rural communities to adapt to the changing food production systems in the wake of climate change and variability and other challenges such as declining soil fertility. There is therefore a need to design adaptive farm management options that enhance both crop and livestock production in a changing climate as well as identifying other livelihood alternatives outside agriculture to reduce pressure on CNRPs. In addition, promotion of alternative sources of energy such as solar power and biogas among rural communities could reduce the cutting of trees for firewood from woodlands.     

蔬菜出口产地农户对食品安全规制的认知及其农药决策行为研究

食品安全与农药残留一直是备受关注的焦点问题。基于此,本文应用山东省蔬菜出口产地安丘市392个农户的调查数据,对农户食品安全规制的认知及其农药使用行为的影响因素进行了分析。研究结果表明,农户的学历层次、农产品国内销售和出口日本的比例、农户对国内外农产品市场的评价及是否接受农药残留检测显著影响其对食品安全规制的认知;而农户的平均生产支出、是否接受农药残留检测、检测标准的严格程度及是否作生产记录影响其农药使用行为。此外,本文发现该制度的实施导致一些农户产生逆向选择,且农户的农药使用因种植结构而不同。针对当前农业生产的特点和食品安全现状,为了促进当地农业生产方式的转变和保护生态环境,政府应加强对农业主体的培训和技术指导,引导当地农户加强与产业组织的联系,有效开展农药残留检测、优化种植结构,提高农产品的质量和国际竞争力。     

The methylic versus the ethylic route: considerations about the sustainability of Brazilian biodiesel production

Brazil is considered one of the world’s leading producers of biofuels given the predominance of ethanol fuel in its energy matrix. However, despite the prominence of Brazil in ethanol production, the vast majority of biodiesel production plants in Brazil use methanol instead of ethanol as the alcohol for transesterification reaction, as is generally the case in the rest of the world. The aim of this paper is therefore to examine the transesterification process in the Brazilian biodiesel production in terms of sustainability. In this regard, it was necessary to evaluate the way in which the industrial process is currently carried out, the role of government incentives or subsidies for the use of ethanol to produce biodiesel, and the investments of companies in technology development for the same purpose. This study presents indications that the development of the biodiesel market in Brazil is still oriented toward a production model which is inconsistent with the environmental and social aspects of sustainability.     

Climate change perceptions and adaptations of smallholder farmers in Eastern Kenya

Several studies have indicated the importance of understanding farmers’ perceptions of risks associated with climate change, the adaptation strategies they employ and factors that affect adaptive capacity. This study aimed to understand smallholder farmers’ perceptions of climate change, adaptation strategies and adaptive capacity in the semiarid Matungulu Sub-County, Eastern Kenya. A participatory approach, using three climate roundtables, was conducted to enhance community participation and understanding of climate change issues. The study showed that farmers’ perceptions concerning climate change are influenced by past experiences of weather extremes that have affected production levels and farm incomes. The farmers have made strategic responses to manage risks posed by climate change. However, they face several challenges in adaptation such as inadequate technical knowledge, low financial resources and inadequate land size. Further, the study showed that climate roundtables is a successful participatory approach that can give effective insights for smallholder farmers to understand agricultural vulnerability, climate change and their adaptation strategies.     

Animal production in a sustainable agriculture

This paper discusses the role of animal production systems in a sustainable society; sustainability problems within animal production systems; and four measures for the improvement of the contribution to societal sustainability from animal production. Substantial potentials for improvements are identified that were not previously known. The methodological basis is multi-criteria multi-level analysis within integrated assessment where elements in Impredicative Loop Analysis are integrated with management tools in Swedish agriculture and forestry developed during thousands of years, during which the well-being of the Swedish society and its economic and military power were functions of the land-use skill. The issue—the sustainability footprint of global animal production—is complex and available data are limited. The Swedish case is used as a starting point for an analysis of international relevance. Data from FAO and OECD support the relevance of extrapolating results from the Swedish case to level. The four measures are (i) decrease the consumption of chicken meat in developed nations with 2.6 kg per capita and year; (ii) develop the capacity of ruminants to produce high-quality food from otherwise marginal agroecosystems; (iii) improve milk production per cow with a factor four on global level; and (iv) increase feeding efficiency in milk production globally would substantially improve the societal contribution in terms of increased food supply and decreased pressure on land. The impact of measures (i), (iii) and (iv) on increased global food security was estimated to in total 1.8 billion people in terms of protein supply and a decreased pressure on agricultural land of 217 million ha, of which 41 relate to tropical forests. The 41 million ha of tropical land are due to a decreased demand on soymeal, where this represents more than a halving of total area now used for the production of soymeal. These impacts are of the character either or. The quality of the measures is as first-time estimates, supporting choices of where to direct further efforts in analysis. Two areas were identified as critical for achieving this potential: Feeding strategies to dairy cows as well as methods commonly used to evaluate the sustainability contribution of animal production needs adjustment, so that they comply with the “laws” of diminishing returns, Liebig’s “law” of the minimum and Shelford’s “law” of tolerance, that is, in agreement with well-known principles for efficient natural resource management and the priorities of UN Millennium Development Goals. If not, global food security is at risk.     

Applying Agroecology to Enhance the Productivity of Peasant Farming Systems in Latin America

The great majority of farmers in Latin America are peasants who still farm small plots of land, usually in marginal environments utilizing traditional and subsistence methods. The contribution of the 16 million peasant units to regional food security is, however, substantial. Research has shown that peasant systems, which mostly rely on local resources and complex cropping patterns, are reasonably productive despite their land endowments and low use of external inputs. Moreover analysis of NGO-led agroecological initiatives show that traditional crop and animal systems can be adapted to increase productivity by biologically re-structuring peasant farms which in turn leads to optimization of key agroecosystem processes (nutrient cycling, organic matter accumulation, biological pest regulation, etc.) and efficient use of labor and local resources. Examples of such grassroots projects are herein described to show that agroecological approaches can offer opportunities to substantially increase food production while preserving the natural resource base and empowering rural communities.     

Evaluation of food industry by-products as feed in semi-arid dairy farming systems: the case of Jordan

Dairy feeding systems in many semi-arid countries are based on imported concentrates and forages. This has economic and ecological implications given the increase in global feed prices and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from land use change. This paper aims to explore alternative dairy feeding systems under semi-arid conditions, using Jordan as an example. The feedings systems under investigation vary in their share of food industry by-products (replacing concentrates in the diet) and are compared against the current concentrate-based feeding systems. The systems are evaluated against three criteria: their nutritional value, their impact on the cost of milk production, and their GHG mitigation potential. Feed samples from eleven food industry by-products and ten conventional feeds were collected from food factories and from three typical dairy farms, representing the typical large-, medium- and small-scale farm types, respectively. Feed samples were analysed for their chemical composition and metabolisable energy contents. In addition, economic and production farm data were collected and entered into a model for GHGs calculation and economic evaluation. The results suggest that inclusion of locally available food industry by-products in the rations of milk cows in semi-arid production systems can be instrumental in reducing production costs and mitigating GHG emissions. Cost of milk production in the model farms can be lowered by up to 14 %; mitigation of CO₂ eq. emission ranged between 70 and 290 g CO₂ eq./kg milk. The degree to which these benefits can be reaped is positively related to the level of inclusion of by-product feeds in lactating cows’ diets.     

Perceptions regarding the challenges and constraints faced by smallholder farmers of vanilla in Mexico

Mexico was the main vanilla producer worldwide many years ago. However, it currently provides just around 5 % of the global production. The issues that have led to the current stagnation of the vanilla production in Mexico have been addressed from various perspectives, but few studies have included the opinion of smallholder farmers. For this reason, the aim of this study was to conduct a participatory diagnostic to identify the challenges and constraints that affect the vanilla productive sector in Mexico from the smallholder farmers perspective. This study was conducted under the of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach; consequently, we used PRA techniques for data collection. The qualitative data obtained were transcribed and analyzed using the Content Analysis Method (CAM) and Constant Comparative Method (CCM). The results showed that most of the challenges and limitations referred to by smallholder farmers result from the lack of training to improve production, processing, and marketing. Likewise, various restrictive aspects were identified in the production process that affect crop productivity, such as cultivation in small parcels, high incidence of diseases, premature abortion of fruits, and low tolerance of plants to stress. An aspect common to all processes is the need to promote organization and training schemes, since under the conditions described for the vanilla production chain in Mexico, relationships have been built in highly competitive communities and, in general, the targets seek have been mutually exclusive. For the above, we consider that achieving more profitable and sustainable production schemes require placing smallholder farmers at the base of an inclusive production system supported by fair trade, with organization, institutions, technology transfer, level of trust, and cooperation as core elements.     

麻疯树种子油生命周期的经济、环境与能量效率

要成为化石能源的有效替代品，生物燃料必须能提供净能量收益，能产生环境效益，具有经济效率，且在大量生产的情况下不引起粮食危机。麻疯树作为第二代生物柴油的重要原料作物，在国内得到大力推广，但实际效率尚不清楚。基于将麻疯树种子油与化石柴油直接混合使用的技术选择，利用生命周期评估法分析了麻疯树种子油生命周期的经济、环境和能量效率。结果表明：（1）在当前产量和生产技术水平下，生产和使用麻疯树种子油的财务净现值为负，要促进麻疯树种子油的生产，需要每年为种子生产者提供8817 元/hm2以上的补贴，为榨油厂商提供268 元/L的补贴；（2）生产和使用每升麻疯树种子油可减少约13 kgCO2当量的温室气体排放，固碳价值为补贴生产提供了部分经济依据，但是仅考虑种子油和固碳的价值时，生产和使用麻疯树种子油尚不具有经济可行性；（3）当仅考虑种子油的能量产出时，只有当种子产量达到795 kg/hm2以上才具有能量效率；当把树枝和果壳等所包含的生物质能计算在内时，在较低种子产量的情况下，也具有显著的能量效率。敏感性分析表明，随着麻疯树种子产量的增加，财务净现值趋于下降，但是种子油的成本下降，减排温室气体的贡献和能量效率都增加。最后，基于麻疯树种子油的生命周期分析，提出了提高经济、环境和能量效率的途径。〖     

生态文明建设背景下江西省有色金属矿产开发生态影响能值分析

有色金属矿产开发在促进经济增长的同时,也带来诸多环境问题,在此现状下,如何评估由此造成的生态损失及系统的状态已成为研究的焦点。借助能值分析可衡量和比较不同类别、不同等级能量的真实价值这一特点,研究江西省有色金属矿产开发生态影响问题。对系统2009~2013年的能值总量、投入产出、生态损失进行核算,分析能值效率、生态效率指标变动趋势,并得出符合实际的生态补偿标准的制定依据。经过计算,2009~2013年江西省有色金属矿产开发能值自给率为0.65左右,整体变化幅度较小;能值投资率在0.23~0.31之间波动,处于较低水平;净能值产出率呈现先上升后下降的趋势;环境承载率整体较高,最低为138.01;可持续发展指数非常小,全部在0.02、0.03;生态补偿指数在62%~69%之间小幅波动。说明江西省有色金属矿产开发对当地的不可更新资源的依赖程度较高,虽然生产效率较高,但当前的生产利用活动已超出环境可承受的范围,系统不可持续发展。为改善环境2009~2013年各年应承担的生态补偿额分别为1.45×10~9元、1.49×10~9元、2.06×10~9元、2.59×10~9元、1.82×10~9元。     

Participatory Integrated Assessment in local level planning

The topic is introduced by a short but critical discussion of criteria and needs of Participatory Integrated Assessment (PIA) and participatory local planning. This paper depicts differences of participation in Integrated Assessment and in local level planning but provides also conditions and ideas how PIA can be used for local planning including implementation. A small review of PIA and participation in planning illustrates the relevance of PIA in a knowledge economy trying to adopt principles of good governance. A better incorporation of participatory research into local level planning seems to be crucial. The applicability of PIA in practices leading to participatory monitoring and evaluations are discussed. The outcomes of the paper show that possibilities exist for integrating PIA and participatory monitoring and evaluation into the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). PIA adds local information to water management planning and supports individual learning processes. The setting up of such a monitoring and evaluation system may contribute towards a transparent implementation of the WFD, it enhances commitment of citizens towards local government planning and eventually it increases self-determination of citizens, a major objective of good governance.

Energy production from corn

Several physical and chemical factors limit the production of biofuels, such as the complex process required for the conversion of plant biomass into ethanol. For example, fossil energy inputs needed for the production of ethanol from corn is 1.59 liters per liter of ethanol. One of the many factors limiting energy output from biomass is the extremely low fraction of sunlight reaching a hectare that is captured by the plants. On average only about 0.1% of the sunlight is captured by green plants per year.     

基于能值计算的循环农业发展个例分析

能值分析能够更好地量化分析和评价循环农业。利用该方法对湖北省武汉银河生态有限公司的循环农业进行了实证分析。结果表明，实施循环农业后的集约养殖场结合农地流转发展起来的“猪-沼（能）肥-地-菜（藕、果、粮）-鱼-村”六位一体的循环农业典型模式，与实施循环农业前当地分离的水稻、小麦、油菜、棉花、蔬菜、柑橘、猪、鱼的农业生产系统相比，在能值转化率、可更新率、能值投资率、能值自给率、净能值产出率、环境负载率、能值交换比率方面均表现出明显优势，并从能值的角度提出了完善循环农业体系的对策建议     

Environmental accounting of natural capital and ecosystem services for the US National Forest System

The National Forests of the United States encompass 192.7?million acres (78?million hectares) of land, which is nearly five percent of the total land area of the nation. These lands are managed by the US Forest Service (USFS) for multiple uses, including extraction of timber, production of fossil fuels and minerals, public recreation, and the preservation of biodiversity, clean air, water, and soils. The USFS is interested in valuing the natural capital within, and the ecosystem services provided by, their lands. This is in part to justify expenditures in a time of limited resources. We used emergy and an environmental accounting approach, to quantify the ecosystem services, the exported environmental goods and information provided by National Forest System (NFS) lands, and the natural capital residing on those lands. Environmental accounting using emergy provides a method to value these flows of services and storages of capital using a common biophysical unit, the solar emjoule and its monetary equivalent the emdollar. We compare emdollar values to economic values gleaned from the literature. In 2005, the ecosystem services provided by USFS lands were equivalent to 197?billion emdollars, and the value of NFS natural capital was 24.3?trillion emdollars. Our evaluation suggests that the Federal Government budget allocation for the NFS ($5.55E+09 in 2005) was well spent, protecting 24.3?trillion emdollars in natural capital and insuring annual ecosystem services totaling 197?billion emdollars. Monetary values for some natural capital and ecosystem services are similar to emergy-derived values (resources like fish, wildlife, water, and firewood extracted from forests), and others are widely different (biodiversity, fossil, and mineral resources). There is large uncertainty associated with computing the environment’s contributions to society whether using emergy or accepted economic techniques; yet, the magnitude of these emergy-derived estimates suggests that even with the uncertainty, the values are significant and monetary expenditures for the Forest Service are justified.     

Linking global drivers with local and regional change: a social-ecological system approach in Chilika Lagoon,Bay of Bengal

Global scale drivers such as international markets for shrimp can trigger large changes at local and regional scales. But there is also a poorly appreciated reverse process, operating from the bottom up, with potential for triggering changes at higher scales. Thus, effects of drivers can be seen as a two-way process in which global drivers and local and regional drivers can potentially impact each other. Here, we argue that not only can global drivers impact the sustainability of local and regional social-ecological systems, but sustainability at higher scales can also be impacted by changes at the scale of local and regional social-ecological systems. Using Chilika, a large lagoon on the Bay of Bengal, Odisha State in India as a case, we show that traditional small-scale capture fisheries supporting 150 fisher villages with some 400,000 people were marginalized by aquaculture development for tiger prawn and by state-driven hydrological interventions, with impacts on the ecology of the lagoon. These changes, in turn, contribute to global poverty and food insecurity, making it difficult for India to meet international targets such as millennium development goals. The marginalized fisherfolk become part of environmental justice and other social movements. With large parts of the lagoon converted into a virtual monoculture for the production of tiger prawn, changes in Chilika (a Ramsar site) contribute to wetland habitat loss at the global scale, and biodiversity losses, possibly including IUCN red-listed species.