人工湿地处理富营养化水体的效果研究

通过在北京市野生动物救护中心构建表流湿地与潜流湿地相结合的复合人工湿地处理富营养化水体,研究该复合人工湿地对总氮（TN）、总磷（TP）及水体浊度的去除效果。结果表明：人工湿地对TP的去除效果好于对TN的去除效果,经过人工湿地处理的富营养化水体,表流湿地、潜流湿地和复合人工湿地对TP的平均去除率可分别达42%、55%、60%,对TN的平均去除率分别为27%、30%、34%,对水体浊度的平均去除率分别达43%、55%、75%。复合人工湿地对TP、TN以及浊度的去除效果受水体温度和溶解氧（DO）的影响,通过相关性分析发现,TP、TN和浊度的去除量与水体中的DO水平之间存在显著的负相关性,而与水体温度有正相关性,在显著性水平为0.05的条件下,相关系数分别为-0.829、-0.767、-0.765和0.674、0.757、0.774。复合人工湿地对TP、TN及浊度的去除率高于表流湿地和潜流湿地,表明复合人工湿地具有优于表流湿地和潜流湿地的整体性功能,能有效提高人工湿地对TN、TP以及浊度的去除率。     

人工湿地组合生态工艺对规模化猪场养殖废水的净化效果研究

研究了表面流、水平潜流和垂直潜流人工湿地以及地下渗滤系统组合生态工艺对模拟和实际猪场养殖废水的净化效果。结果表明,在进水ρ（COD）=709.2 mg.L-1,ρ（TN）=597.1 mg.L-1,ρ（NH4＋-N）=560.4 mg.L-1和ρ（TP）=42.5 mg.L-1的质量浓度条件下组合生态系统对于COD、TN、NH4＋-N和TP的去除率分别可以达到87%、95%、97%和95%,其中COD的去除主要在第一级表面流人工湿地,NH4＋-N和TN去除主要是在水平潜流和垂直潜流人工湿地,水平潜流和垂直潜流人工湿地对溶解性磷酸盐去除效果明显,地下渗滤起到进一步稳定出水水质的作用。水平潜流和垂直潜流人工湿地的运行结果对比表明,后者对污染物的去除率均高于前者。     

不同植物人工湿地对污水的净化效果

通过对栽种芦苇(Phragmites australis)、香蒲(Typha latifolia)和菖蒲(Acorus calamus)3种植物的潜流人工湿地进行试验研究,分析3种植物对污水的净化效果,及在不同水力停留时间下的变化规律.试验结果表明,在最佳运行条件下,COD、TN、TP的去除率分别在50%、75%和65%以上;3种植物对比可以看出,香蒲的净化效果明显好于芦苇和菖蒲,香蒲对COD、TN、TP的去除率分别达到67.2%、89.7%、88.9%.     

人工湿地对有机污染物的去除效果与动态特征

通过对荣成人工湿地污水处理系统1999年1月至2004年12月间监测数据进行分析,确定系统的处理效果及有机污染物去除效果的动态特征。结果表明,人工湿地对SS、COD、BOD5均有很好的去除效果,出水质量浓度分别为27.6±6.6、90.0±12.5和22.7±4.3 mg.L-1,去除率分别为73.9%、63.8%和72.5%。大肠菌群、粪大肠菌群去除率分别为99.7%和99.6%。对NH4 -N和TP去除效果较差,出水质量浓度分别为11.2±2.7和2.03±0.29 mg.L-1,去除率分别为45.1%和30.2%。BOD5、COD的去除效果和季节变化有一定关系,每年的4—7月BOD5去除效果最佳,1月和12月去除效果最差。COD的去除效果每年6月和7月最高,1月和12月最低。分析BOD5、COD和SS去除效果的年际变化发现,BOD5和COD年平均去除率从1999年到2004年有增加的趋势。     

垂直潜流人工湿地净化北方微污染水体试验研究

为研究垂直潜流人工湿地对北方微污染水体中COD、氮和磷的去除效果及去除机理,在室内选用混合土(由炉渣与种植土按比例混合而成)、石英砂和陶粒作为填料,以天津当地常见植物黄花鸢尾为植被构建了垂直潜流人工湿地处理微污染景观湖水和雨季的初期雨水;除冬季冰封期暂停运行外,通过对系统不同季节运行数据的分析,考察了不同季节环境条件下垂直潜流人工湿地对我国北方城市微污染水体的净化效果及影响因素。结果表明:不同季节条件下,该系统对污染物均有着良好的去除效果和抗冲击负荷能力。微污染景观水和雨季初期雨水经垂直潜流人工湿地系统处理后,出水COD、NH4+-N及TP的质量浓度可分别优于GB 3838—2002《地表水环境质量标准》的IV类、III类和II类水质标准(研究阶段进水TP≤0.80 mg·L-1),COD、NH4+-N和TP的阶段平均去除率最高可分别达80%、91%和82%;TN的去除效果受季节变化波动较大,阶段平均去除率在32%~78%,温度较低季节或原水水质较差时有待处理水回流或辅加其他技术手段以提高脱氮效果。垂直潜流人工湿地对北方微污染水体有着较好的净化效果,能够有效地预防地表水体富营养化的发生,有利于城市水环境质量的改善和水资源的循环利用,具有良好的发展应用前景。     

潜流人工湿地低温下黄河原水预处理效果研究

在低温条件下(水温0.3～15.9℃),采用水平潜流人工湿地在玉清湖水库进水口处对入库黄河水进行预处理试验研究,考察了低温下黄河原水预处理效果,比较了不同水力负荷条件下,湿地系统对污染物的去除效率及其变化趋势,同时考察了进水污染物含量的影响.结果表明:在运行期间,潜流人工湿地有较好的处理效果,COD、TP、TN、NH4 -N的平均去除率均分别达到43.13%、40.86%、42.56%、43.26%.根据GB3838-2002<地表水环境质量标准>,出水中COD达到Ⅰ类,TP平均值达到Ⅱ类,TN平均值达到Ⅴ类;NH4 -N平均值达到Ⅱ类.处理效果与温度正相关,在现有的水力负荷变化范围内(0.6 ～1.2 m·d-1),系统处理效果无明显差别.同时发现,由于本实验的进水负荷低,系统去除功能未能得到充分利用,今后的研究可以适当提高负荷,充分利用系统的净化能力.     

人工湿地系统对含沼液畜禽废水净化效果试验研究

为了考察人工湿地处理含沼液畜禽废水的可行性,采用水平潜流人工湿地对含沼液畜禽废水进行处理实验。试验结果表明：在进水流量1.5 m3.d-1,水平潜流人工湿地系统对含沼液畜禽废水具有较好的处理效果。废水中COD、TP、TN和NH4＋-N浊度平均去除率分别为59.21%、53.80%、55.09%和55.57%.另外,通过对人工湿地沿程的污染物变化试验分析表明,人工湿地系统对污染物的降解是沿人工湿地水流方向逐渐降低的。     

荣成人工湿地净化效果的季节和年际变化

荣成人工湿地污水处理系统占地面积80 hm2,处理规模2.0万m3.d-1,1998年10月开始投入运行。对1999年1月到2004年12月荣成人工湿地污水处理系统净化效果以及净化效果的季节和年际变化进行分析。结果表明,人工湿地对SS、BOD5、CODC r均有很好的去除效果,出水浓度分别为(27.6±6.6)、(22.7±4.3)和(90.0±12.5)mg.L-1,去除率分别为73.9%、72.5%和63.8%。大肠菌群、粪大肠菌群去除率分别为99.7%和99.6%。对NH4 -N和TP去除效果较差,出水浓度分别为(11.2±2.7)和(2.03±0.29)mg.L-1,去除率分别为45.1%和30.2%。BOD5、CODC r、NH4 -N和TP的去除效果与季节变化有一定关系,NH4 -N受季节变化的影响最大,其次是TP,BOD5和CODC r受季节变化的影响相对较小。分析BOD5、CODC r、NH4 -N和TP去除效果的年际变化发现,BOD5、CODC r和NH4 -N去除率有增加的趋势。TP去除率在2001年和2002年基本相同,从2003年开始下降。     

表面流人工湿地处理生活污水的研究

通过小试装置研究了表面流人工湿地对人工模拟生活污水的处理效果及相关运行参数。实验结果表明，表面流人工湿地系统对污水中的CODcr、TN、TP均有较好的综合净化能力，对各种污染物指标的去除率可分别达到CODcr 75％、TN75％、TP73％，其中CODcr和TN达到一级排放标准分别需3d和4d的表观停留时间，TP要达到二级排放标准则需6d的表观停留时间。而且，湿地植物对TN和TP的去除有比较明显的促进作用。     

人工湿地植物量及其对净化效果影响的研究

人工湿地污水处理系统中,植物对污水净化效果起着非常重要的作用,而植物量是植物生长的关键参数之一。为了明确植物量对污水处理效果的影响,在2002--2008年期间,详细测定了芦苇（Ph．australisTrin）、再力花（Thaliadealbata）、荻（M．sacchariflorus）和美人蕉（Cannaindica）4种典型湿地植物不同年度的生物量、不同生长阶段的生物量、生物量年产率,以及同期湿地COD、BOD5、TN和TP等的去除率。结果表明：湿地植物在栽植成活、稳定生长以后,至少要再经过1个以上的生长周期才能完全适应湿地环境,达到生物量的最大值,其中芦苇根系和茎叶生物量显著高于其他植物;同种植物的植物量与COD、BOD5、TN去除率呈显著正相关,与TP相关性不强;植物量随生长周期的变化对湿地净化能力的影响显著,确定合理收割期有利于湿地的稳定运行;不同种类植物生物量年产率与各种污染物的去除率均显著相关,芦苇、再力花和美人蕉均具有较高的生物量年产率,污染物去除能力较好。在试验范围内,芦苇湿地的运行稳定性最好,再力花湿地具有最强的脱氮能力,美人蕉湿地能快速形成规模、实现稳定运行,这些为构建不同特点和不同需要的湿地提供了重要参考。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.