A national evaluation of the nighttime and passenger restriction components of graduated driver licensing

Introduction

The high crash rate of youthful novice drivers has been recognized for half a century. Over the last decade, graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems, which extend the period of supervised driving and limit the novice's exposure to higher-risk conditions (such as nighttime driving), have effectively reduced crash involvements of novice drivers.

Method

This study used data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and the implementation dates of GDL laws in a state-by-year panel study to evaluate the effectiveness of two key elements of GDL laws: nighttime restrictions and passenger limitations.

Results

Nighttime restrictions were found to reduce 16- and 17-year-old driver involvements in nighttime fatal crashes by an estimated 10% and 16- and 17-year-old drinking drivers in nighttime fatal crashes by 13%. Passenger restrictions were found to reduce 16- and 17-year-old driver involvements in fatal crashes with teen passengers by an estimated 9%.

Conclusions

These results confirm the effectiveness of these provisions in GDL systems. Impact on Public Health. States without the nighttime or passenger restrictions in their GDL law should strongly consider adopting them.

Impact on Industry

The results of this study indicate that nighttime restrictions and passenger limitations are very important components of any GDL law.     

Does the built environment affect when American teens become drivers? Evidence from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey

Problem

Motor vehicle crashes are the most common cause of death for American adolescents. However, the impact of where teens live on when they begin driving has not been studied.

Method

Data from the 2001 National Household Travel Survey were used to estimate the effect of residential density on the driver status of teens aged 16 to 19 years after matching on demographic characteristics.

Results

Controlling for demographic characteristics, 16 and 17 year old teens in high density neighborhoods had driver rates 15 percentage points below teens living in less dense areas (p < 0.001). The effect for 18 and 19 year olds was a 9 percentage point decrease (p < 0.001).

Summary

These results suggest teens living in less dense and more sprawling communities initiate driving at a younger age than comparable teens in compact areas, placing them at increased risk for crash related injuries. Impact on Industry: The role of environmental factors, such as neighborhood walkability and provision of transit, should be considered in young driver programs.     

The Long Beach/Fort Lauderdale relative risk study

Problem

The role of alcohol as a major factor in traffic crash causation has been firmly established. However, controversy remains as to the precise shape of the relative risk function and the BAC at which crash risk begins to increase.

Methods

This study used a case-control design in two locations: Long Beach, California, and Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Data were collected on 2,871 crashes of all severities and a matched control group of drivers selected from the same time, location, and direction of travel as the crash drivers. Of the 14,985 sample drivers, 81.3% of the crash drivers and 97.9% of the controls provided a valid BAC specimen.

Results

When adjusted for covariates and nonparticipation bias, increases in relative risk were observed at BACs of .04-.05, and the elevations in risk became very pronounced when BACs exceeded .10.

Discussion

The results provide strong support for .08 per se laws and for state policies that increase sanctions for BACs in excess of .15.

Impact on Industry

This study provides further precision on the deleterious effects of alcohol on driving and, by implication, on other complex tasks.     

Older driver retraining: An updated systematic review of evidence of effectiveness

Problem and Objective

The number of older drivers who might benefit from driver retraining is growing. A previous review on the effectiveness of older driver retraining included intervention studies up to 2004. The objective was to perform an updated systematic review of the effectiveness of older driver retraining for improving driving-related skills and reducing crash rates.

Method

Articles published from 2004-2008 were grouped according to the intervention provided and outcome studied. Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were appraised using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale and scored for quality according to their internal validity. Each intervention's effectiveness was then rated and assigned a level of evidence by combining pre- and post- 2004 findings.

Results

Three RCTs and one matched-pairs cohort design met the inclusion criteria. There is strong evidence (Level 1a) that education combined with on-road training improves driving performance and moderate evidence (Level 1b) that it improves knowledge. There is moderate evidence (Level 1b) that physical retraining improves driving performance. There is moderate evidence (Level 1b) that an educational intervention curriculum alone is not effective in reducing crashes.

Summary

The updated evidence on the effectiveness of retraining aimed at older drivers is sufficiently encouraging to merit assertive health promotion actions regarding intervention and program planning.

Impact on Industry

These positive findings warrant a comprehensive plan that has both behavioral and monetary incentives encouraging older driver participation in programs aimed at driver safety.     

Attitudes toward a primary seat belt law among adults in a rural state with a secondary seat belt law

Problem

Enforced primary seatbelt laws can reduce morbidity and mortality associated with motor-vehicle crashes. Constituent support is an important factor associated with legislator voting behavior toward injury prevention laws. Little is known about attitudes toward a primary seat belt law among adults in rural states without a primary seat belt law.

Methods

Data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) survey, a telephone survey of a representative sample of adults in Montana, were used to assess attitudes toward a primary seat belt law.

Results

Sixty-one percent of respondents supported a primary seat belt law. Using multiple logistic regression analyses, women (AOR 1.87; 95% CI 1.49-2.36), persons aged 65 years and older (1.45; 1.06-1.96), American Indians (2.71; 1.55-4.75), those with health insurance (1.51; 1.07-2.14), and those who reported always wearing their seat belt (4.05; 3.14-5.21) were more likely to support a primary seat belt law than respondents without these characteristics.

Conclusions

The majority of adults in a rural state support a primary seat belt law.     

Self-assessed driver competence among novice drivers - a comparison of driving test candidate assessments and examiner assessments in a Dutch and Finnish sample

Problem

This study examined novice drivers’ overconfidence by comparing their self-assessed driver competence with the assessments made by driving examiners.

Method

A Finnish (n = 2,739) and a Dutch sample (n = 239) of drivers license candidates assessed their driver competence in six areas and took the driving test.

Result and Discussion

In contrast to previous studies where drivers have assessed their skill in comparison to the average driver, a smaller proportion overestimated and a larger proportion made realistic self-assessments of their driver competence in the present study, where self-assessments were compared with examiner assessments. Between 40% and 50% of the candidates in both samples made realistic assessments and 30% to 40% overestimated their competence. The proportion of overestimation was greater in the Dutch than in the Finnish sample, which might be explained by greater possibilities for practicing self-assessment in the Finnish driver education system. Similar to other self-assessment studies that indicate that incompetence is related to overestimation, a larger proportion of candidates that failed the test overestimated their skill compared to those who passed. In contrast to other studies, males did not overestimate their skills more than females, and younger driver candidates were not more overconfident than older drivers.

Impact on traffic safety

Although a great proportion of the candidates made a realistic assessment of their own driver competence, overestimation is still a problem that needs to be dealt with. To improve the accuracy of novice drivers’ self-assessment, methods for self-assessment training should be developed and implemented in the driver licensing process.     

Predicting driver drowsiness using vehicle measures: Recent insights and future challenges

Introduction

Driver drowsiness is a significant contributing factor to road crashes. One approach to tackling this issue is to develop technological countermeasures for detecting driver drowsiness, so that a driver can be warned before a crash occurs.

Method

The goal of this review is to assess, given the current state of knowledge, whether vehicle measures can be used to reliably predict drowsiness in real time.

Results

Several behavioral experiments have shown that drowsiness can have a serious impact on driving performance in controlled, experimental settings. However, most of those studies have investigated simple functions of performance (such as standard deviation of lane position) and results are often reported as averages across drivers, and across time.

Conclusions

Further research is necessary to examine more complex functions, as well as individual differences between drivers.

Impact on Industry

A successful countermeasure for predicting driver drowsiness will probably require the setting of multiple criteria, and the use of multiple measures.     

Implied-consent laws: A review of the literature and examination of current problems and related statutes

Problem

A substantial proportion of drivers arrested for DUI refuse the BAC test, thereby reducing the likelihood that they will be convicted and potentially increasing the number of high-risk multiple offenders contributing to alcohol-related crashes.

Method

This paper reviews the information on the current status of implied-consent laws (which impose a sanction on offenders who refuse the BAC test) in the 50 states and the other relevant traffic safety laws and policies that may influence state refusal rates.

Results

Although there appears to be only a weak relationship between state refusal rates and crash rates, there is strong evidence that BAC test refusals significantly compromise the arrest, prosecution, and sentencing of DUI suspects and the overall enforcement of DUI laws in the United States.

Discussion

Laws and policies that may reduce the number of refusals are discussed.

Impact on industry

Alcohol-related crash injuries are an important cost problem for U.S. industry because of property damage from crashes, crash injuries to employees that raise health costs, or the reduction of time on the job resulting from a highway injury.     

Understanding crash potential associated with teen driving: Survey analysis using multivariate graphical method

Introduction: Teen crash involvement is usually higher than other age groups, and they are typically overrepresented in car crashes. To infer teen drivers' understanding of crash potentials (factors that are associated with crash occurrence), two sources of data are generally used: retrospective data and prospective data. Retrospective data sources contain historical crash data, which have limitations in determining teen drivers' knowledge of crash potentials. Prospective data sources, like surveys, have more potential to minimize the research gap. Prior studies have shown that teen drivers are more likely to be involved in crashes during their early driving years. Thus, there is a benefit in examining how teen drivers' understanding of crash potentials change during their transition through licensing stages (i.e., no licensure to unrestricted licensure). Method: This study used a large set of teen driver survey data (a dataset from approximately 88,000 respondents) of Texas teens to answer the research question. Researchers provided rankings of the crash potentials by gender and licensure stages using a multivariate graphical method named taxicab correspondence analysis (TCA). Results: The findings show that driving behavior and understanding of crash potentials differ among teens based upon various licensing stages. Practical applications: Findings from this study can help government authorities to refine policies of teen driver licensing and implement potential countermeasures for safety improvement.     

A comparison of web-based and telephone surveys for assessing traffic safety concerns, beliefs, and behaviors

Introduction

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the results of a web-based and a telephone interview survey measuring driver concerns about a variety of traffic safety issues, their beliefs, and specific driving behaviors.

Method

State-wide, annual random digit-dial telephone surveys and web-based surveys were conducted in Maryland. A total of 1,700 drivers were surveyed by telephone and 6,806 took a web survey.

Results

Telephone respondents were more likely to be female and older. Web respondents were more likely to be white and not Latino/Hispanic. After controlling for demographic differences, telephone survey respondents were more likely to be concerned about traffic safety. They were more likely to believe that sobriety checkpoints reduce drunk driving (OR = 2.18, 95% CI 1.94, 2.45), they would be ticketed for not wearing a seat belt (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.12, 1.43), and they would be stopped by the police if they drove after drinking too much (OR = 1.17, 95% CI 1.03, 1.32). They were less likely to report a variety of risky behaviors including using a cell phone while driving (OR = .54, 95% CI .48, .61) and driving 10+ mph over the speed limit (OR = .81, 95% CI .72, .91), but were more likely to report having been ticketed for a moving violation in the last month (OR = 2.22, 95% CI 1.70, 2.90). Suggestions are offered for overcoming potential sources of sampling bias.

Impact on Industry

Web-based surveys produce substantially different results than random-digit-dial telephone surveys, when used for public assessments of traffic safety concerns and behaviors.     

Risks older drivers pose to themselves and to other road users

Problem

Studies have shown that older drivers have high death rates and lower rates of involvement in crashes that kill others; but most studies have not considered drivers' responsibility for their crashes, and many have considered only one particular measure of risk.

Method

This study examines risks that drivers of various ages pose to themselves and to others on per-driver, per-trip, and per-mile bases, taking responsibility for crashes into account, using United States fatal crash data from 1999 through 2003 and travel estimates from 2001.

Results

Relative to other age groups, drivers aged 85 and older face the highest risk of their own death, whereas teens pose the greatest risk to passengers, occupants of other vehicles, and non-motorists.

Discussion

The oldest drivers pose more risk to other road users than middle-aged drivers do; the degree of their excess risk depends strongly upon how risk is measured.

Impact on industry

These results demonstrate the importance of keeping clear the meaning and implications of various risk measures.     

Effect of enhanced seat belt reminders on driver fatality risk

Objective

Enhanced seat belt reminders in automobiles have been shown to increase belt use rates by approximately 3 percentage points. The objective of this study was to estimate the effect of enhanced seat belt reminders on driver fatality risk.

Method

Data included all passenger vehicle driver deaths and vehicle registration counts in the United States for calendar years 2000-2007. Driver fatality rates per vehicle registration per year were compared for otherwise identical vehicle models with and without enhanced seat belt reminders.

Results

Driver fatality rates were 6% lower for vehicles with enhanced seat belt reminders compared with vehicles without enhanced belt reminders. After adjusting for vehicle age differences, the estimated effect of enhanced belt reminders on driver fatality risk ranged from a 9% reduction for General Motors vehicles to a 2% increase for Honda vehicles. Combining all manufacturers, enhanced belt reminders reduced fatality risk by approximately 2%. Although not statistically significant, the 2% reduction in fatality risk agrees with what should be expected from a 3 percentage point increase in seat belt use rates.

Conclusions

Enhanced seat belt reminders have raised driver belt use rates and reduced fatality rates, but more aggressive systems may be needed for some drivers. It can be inferred that nonfatal injury rates also have been reduced.

Impact on Industry

Manufacturers should be encouraged to put enhanced seat belt reminders on all vehicles as soon as possible.     

Adolescent, and their parents, attitudes towards graduated driver licensing and subsequent risky driving and crashes in young adulthood

Problem

Although Graduated Driver Licensing Systems (GDLS) have helped reduce young driver crash rates, they remain significantly over-represented in crash statistics. To be effective GDLS rely heavily on support for the legislation by those directly involved; parents to enforce the restrictions and adolescents to comply. There is some evidence that practices regarding GDLS restrictions influence adolescent driving outcomes in the early stage of licensure. However there has been no examination undertaken on the influence of parent and adolescent attitudes toward GDLS on adolescents’ driving behavior and crash experiences as they move into their young adult years. The aim of this research was to examine these relationships.

Method

This investigation was based on a longitudinal study of a birth cohort, and uses data collected when the cohort members were aged 15, 18, and 21 years. At age 15 both adolescent and their parent attitudes toward GDLS were measured. At age 18 adolescent GDLS attitudes were measured again. The association between these measures and self-reported risky driving behavior and crash involvement at age 21 were examined.

Results

Negative attitudes toward the learner supervisor restriction for males, and negative attitudes toward a GDLS for females were strongly associated with risky driving and crash involvement as young adults.

Impact on industry

Targeting interventions to improve adolescents and parents understanding of the reasons for graduated licensing and the specific restrictions may improve attitudes and views and thereby contribute to a reduction in risky driving behaviors and crash risk among young adults.     

Seat Belt Use in States and Territories with Primary and Secondary Laws -- United States, 2006

Problem

Motor-vehicle crashes are a leading cause of death in the United States. In the event of a crash, seat belts are highly effective in preventing serious injury and death.

Methods

Data from the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System were used to calculate prevalence of seat belt use by state and territory and by type of state seat belt law (primary vs. secondary enforcement).

Results

In 2006, seat belt use among adults ranged from 58.3% to 91.9% in the states and territories. Seat belt use was 86.0% in states and territories with primary enforcement laws and 75.9% in states with secondary enforcement laws.

Discussion

Seat belt use continues to increase in the United States. Primary enforcement laws remain a more effective strategy than secondary enforcement laws in getting motor-vehicle occupants to wear their seat belts.     

The impact of state level behavioral regulations on traffic fatality rates

Introduction

A state by year panel is analyzed to simultaneously explore the statistical correlation between state level traffic fatality rates and state level behavioral regulations regarding teen licensing, seat belt use, and driving under the influence (DUI) in a model that also controls for other correlates.

Method

By including measures of all three of these policies, the estimated policy effects should not be overstated due to underspecification bias. The panel includes the 48 contiguous U.S. states for the time period from 1999 through 2003. State fatality rates are measured as fatalities per million miles traveled. Measures of state policies regarding traffic safety related behavior are based on information gathered by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Estimates are calculated via a time fixed effects model that uses the double-log form to allow for interaction effects between the independent variables.

Results

Least squares estimates indicate that, on average, more restrictive graduated teen licensing and DUI policies significantly reduce traffic fatality rates, while stricter seat belt enforcement policies have a statistically insignificant negative impact on fatality rates.     

Age and gender differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to being directed to Iowa's driver improvement program

Introduction

This paper investigates potential gender and age differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to being directed to attend Iowa's Driver Improvement Program (DIP).

Methods

Binary logit models were developed to investigate the factors that influence conviction occurrence after DIP by gender and age. Because of the low crash occurrence subsequent to DIP, association rules were applied to investigate the factors that influence crash occurrence subsequent to DIP, in lieu of econometric models.

Results

There were statistical significant differences by driver gender, age, and conviction history in the likelihood of subsequent convictions. However, this paper found no association between DIP outcome, crash history, and crash occurrence.

Impact on industry

Evaluating the differences in conviction and crash occurrence subsequent to DIP between female and male drivers, and among different age groups can lead to improvements of the effectiveness of DIPs and help to identify low-cost intervention measures, customized based on drivers’ gender and age, for improving driving behaviors.     

Parental perceptions of teen driving: Restrictions,worry and influence

IntroductionParents play a critical role in preventing crashes among teens. Research of parental perceptions and concerns regarding teen driving safety is limited. We examined results from the 2013 Summer ConsumerStyles survey that queried parents about restrictions placed on their teen drivers, their perceived level of “worry” about their teen driver’s safety, and influence of parental restrictions regarding their teen’s driving.MethodsWe produced frequency distributions for the number of restrictions imposed, parental “worry,” and influence of rules regarding their teen’s driving, reported by teen’s driving license status (learning to drive or obtained a driver’s license). Response categories were dichotomized because of small cell sizes, and we ran separate log-linear regression models to explore whether imposing all four restrictions on teen drivers was associated with either worry intensity (“a lot” versus “somewhat, not very much or not at all”) or perceived influence of parental rules (“a lot” versus “somewhat, not very much or not at all”).ResultsAmong the 456 parent respondents, 80% reported having restrictions for their teen driver regarding use of safety belts, drinking and driving, cell phones, and text messaging while driving. However, among the 188 parents of licensed teens, only 9% reported having a written parent-teen driving agreement, either currently or in the past. Worrying “a lot” was reported less frequently by parents of newly licensed teens (36%) compared with parents of learning teens (61%).Conclusions and Practical ApplicationsParents report having rules and restrictions for their teen drivers, but only a small percentage formalize the rules and restrictions in a written parent-teen driving agreement. Parents worry less about their teen driver’s safety during the newly licensed phase, when crash risk is high as compared to the learning phase. Further research is needed into how to effectively support parents in supervising and monitoring their teen driver.     

Differences in urban and rural accident characteristics and medical service utilization for traffic fatalities in less-motorized societies

Introduction

Fatalities from traffic accidents in less-motorized societies are an important global issue. We aimed to characterize the geographic differences of fatalities in such societies to facilitate the development of targeted interventions.

Method

This study linked police reports, hospital data, and vital registration data from Taiwan with special reference to accident factors in pre-hospital deaths and medical care in hospital deaths.

Results

A higher percentage of pre-hospital deaths were observed following rural as compared to urban traffic accidents. The deaths due to rural accidents can be attributed to lower use of restraints (i.e., helmets or seat belts), lower percentage of motorcyclists, and more highway accidents. A higher percentage of victims in rural accidents were transported to distant medical centers rather than to local hospitals.

Conclusion

Specific interventions, such as intelligent emergency medical systems, campaigns for helmets and seat belt usage, enforcement of helmets and seat belt use, and speed control measures should be targeted to rural areas.

Impact on industry

Cooperation between the vehicle industry and emergency medical providers in rural traffic accident rescue teams may decrease the numbers of deaths in these regions.     

A traffic safety evaluation of California's traffic violator school citation dismissal policy

Introduction

This study evaluated California's traffic violator school (TVS) citation dismissal policy.

Method

This study identified and compared two large samples of drivers either completing a TVS (N = 210,015) or convicted of a traffic citation (N = 168,563).

Results

Prior to adjudication, the TVS group had characteristics (e.g., lower prior conviction rate and smaller proportion of males) that were predictive of a lower subsequent crash risk. However, the TVS group exhibited significantly more crashes than did the convicted group in the subsequent one-year period. The difference (4.83%) increased to 10% after adjusting for the more favorable characteristics of the TVS group. The TVS group also had a higher adjusted subsequent crash rate at each prior driver record entry level, reflecting a loss in the general and specific deterrence of the non-conviction masked status of TVS dismissed citations. It was reported that the TVS dismissal policy results in approximately 12,300 additional crashes annually with economic costs of approximately $398,000,000.

Conclusions

The avoidance of licensing actions resulting from the dismissal policy assists in explaining why the driving public is exposed to an increased crash risk. A number of recommendations are offered to reduce the negative traffic safety impact of the TVS citation dismissal policy.