Temporary storage of carbon in the biosphere does have value for climate change mitigation: a response to the paper by Miko Kirschbaum

Kirschbaum (Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change 11:1151–1164, 2006) explores the climatic impact over time of temporarily sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. He concludes that temporary storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere “achieves effectively no climate-change mitigation”. His strongly worded statement begs for a response. This paper argues that Kirschbaum’s conclusion is an artifact of the specific perspective of his analysis and his choice of a definition for climate-change impact. Even temporary sinks put us on a lower path for climate change, a path that will not otherwise be accessible. For carbon sinks in the terrestrial biosphere, we argue that sooner is better and longer is better, but even known temporary sinks have value.

Recent Trends in Residential Energy Use in OECD Countries and their Impact on Carbon Dioxide Emissions: A Comparative Analysis of the Period 1973–1992

In the late 1970s and for most of the 1980s, residential energy use in the OECD underwent significant changes. Many of these changes were a result of more efficient energy use in response to higher energy prices, energy efficiency programs, and the appearance of new technologies for saving energy. This study analyzes these changes and the impact of energy use on carbon emissions in the residential sector for nine OECD countries for the period from 1973 to 1992. The major findings of this analysis are:

1. CO₂ emissions per capita were lower in 1992 in almost all of the countries we studied;
2. The two primary changes were improvements in energy efficiency and a decrease in the share of fossil fuels used for electricity and district heating production;
3. The main source of growth in emissions from residential energy use was increased ownership of electric appliances, where, in spite of important improvements in energy efficiency, ownership grew so rapidly that electricity use (and subsequent emissions) increased;
4. Changes in fuel mix, including both the changes in the share of fuels used in households and the share of fuels used to generate electricity and district heating, led to a decrease in emissions in the nine countries;
5. Increasing the efficiency of electric appliances and further reductions in the intensity of space heating are probably the key elements in a strategy to improve efficiency as a means to lowering CO₂ emissions.

     

Antarktische Meteorite

During the recent years more than 5000 meteorites have been collected in the Antarctic. They are mainly found on the surface of blue ice fields close to the Allan Hills and the Yamato Mountains. Taking into account all available analytical data of these meteorites and considering observations in the field the large number of meteorites found at the Allan Hills site can be explained by several specific circumstances:

1. On the bare ice fields in Antarctica meteorites with diameter less than 1 cm are easily detected.
2. The weathering of meteorites under the climatic conditions of Antarctica is very small. Therefore, higher densities of meteorites can build up on the surface of ice fields with no snow accumulation.
3. Concentration mechanisms due to ice movement and ablation of the ice are active. However, for the Allan Hills sampling site the collection of meteorites fallen on much larger areas is of less importance.

     

On the value of temporary carbon: a comment on Kirschbaum

A recent paper by Miko Kirschbaum (Mitigat Adapt Strategies Glob Change 11(5–6):1151–1164, 2006) argues that temporary carbon (C) storage has “virtually no climate-change mitigation value.” However, temporary carbon has value in delaying global warming that needs to be recognized in carbon accounting methodologies. The conclusions reached are very sensitive to any value that is attached to time. Basing analysis exclusively on the maximum temperature reached within a 100-year time frame ignores other important impacts of global warming that also need to be included when mitigation strategies are assessed. The relative weightings for long-term versus short-term impacts represent policy choices that result in a greater or a lesser value being attributed to temporary carbon, but that value should not be zero. Global warming is too formidable an enemy to allow us the luxury of discarding part of our arsenal in fighting against it. Both reducing fossil-fuel combustion and increasing biosphere carbon stocks are needed.     

A lake classification concept for a more accurate global estimate of the dissolved inorganic carbon export from terrestrial ecosystems to inland waters

The magnitude of lateral dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) export from terrestrial ecosystems to inland waters strongly influences the estimate of the global terrestrial carbon dioxide (CO₂) sink. At present, no reliable number of this export is available, and the few studies estimating the lateral DIC export assume that all lakes on Earth function similarly. However, lakes can function along a continuum from passive carbon transporters (passive open channels) to highly active carbon transformers with efficient in-lake CO₂ production and loss. We developed and applied a conceptual model to demonstrate how the assumed function of lakes in carbon cycling can affect calculations of the global lateral DIC export from terrestrial ecosystems to inland waters. Using global data on in-lake CO₂ production by mineralization as well as CO₂ loss by emission, primary production, and carbonate precipitation in lakes, we estimated that the global lateral DIC export can lie within the range of \( {0.70}_{-0.31}^{+0.27} \) to \( {1.52}_{-0.90}^{+1.09} \) Pg C yr^?1 depending on the assumed function of lakes. Thus, the considered lake function has a large effect on the calculated lateral DIC export from terrestrial ecosystems to inland waters. We conclude that more robust estimates of CO₂ sinks and sources will require the classification of lakes into their predominant function. This functional lake classification concept becomes particularly important for the estimation of future CO₂ sinks and sources, since in-lake carbon transformation is predicted to be altered with climate change.     

Implementation-oriented and transformative research—Lessons from a project on conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in Ethiopia

This article draws lessons from a seven-year project on conservation and use of remaining coffee forests in the highlands of South-west Ethiopia. The project investigated the genetic diversity of Coffea arabica in its place of origin as well as economic perspectives of quality coffee marketing. With initially broad multidisciplinary natural and social sciences research a basis was laid for a second phase of praxis and implementation-oriented research in the same region.As a key innovative approach an NGO was established to take over all project management and implementation-oriented work in Ethiopia at the beginning of the second phase. This initiative helped decisively to solve the kind of problems identified in RESCUE (2012): ownership of results developed within R&D, the often missing mandate for science to actively contribute to solutions ‘on the ground’, and problems of cultural and social unsuitability and misunderstanding, which often are at the core of the problem when solutions from scientists are expected.The NGO operated as an intermediary between the involved scientists and other stakeholders from the coffee industry as well as from public administration and the Ethiopian polity. Its overall target was to contribute toward establishment of a biosphere reserve following the UNESCO MAB scheme and to use this scheme for the conservation and use of the remaining Ethiopian coffee forests. This target was achieved: the biosphere reserve has been accepted and accredited by UNESCO and is in operation. In addition, quality coffee from the development zones of the biosphere reserve is being sold on local markets in Yayu, SW Ethiopia.There are important lessons for the future of transdisciplinary and transformative sustainability science that can be drawn from this experience. These lessons concern concrete challenges and chances of research and development geared toward sustainable development:

• •Working with implementation-targets as project organizing elements,
• •communication and transfer of responsibility to involved stakeholders,
• •challenges for praxis-oriented syntheses from research results,
• •practical challenges of management and coordination for transdisciplinary projects, as well as.
• •chances for long-term sustainability and use of research and implementation work.

These lessons are described in this article with the overall intention to draw conclusions and to make them more widely available for scientists and project coordinators working in transdisciplinary projects that aim to contribute toward (more) sustainable development.     

临安区域大气本底站CO_2浓度特征及其碳源汇变化研究

通过分析2006年8月～2009年7月临安区域大气本底站Flask瓶采样获得的CO2浓度特征,结合碳追踪模式的模拟结果,研究了长三角地区碳源汇变化对CO2浓度的影响.结果表明,临安区域大气本底站的CO2浓度分布在368.3×10-6～414.8×10-6之间,具有较明显的季节波动变化特征,冬季高、夏季低,浓度年较差接近...     

Ecological knowledge and North Sea environmental policies

In an analysis of North Sea eutrophication science and policies, focusing on the period 1980–2005, it was investigated how scientific information was used in policy-making. The analysis focused on the central assumptions of the rational policy-making model, i.e. that scientific information can be used to formulate decisions, based upon objective scientific information (rational decision-making), and secondly, can support implementing these decisions (rational management). In general terms, the following was concluded:

• •More knowledge has increased rather than reduced uncertainty;
• •In order to handle the problem of dealing with complexity and uncertainty at the political level, a simplification of facts has occurred, in this case focusing on nutrients as the main cause of the problem, at the same time excluding other possible causes;
• •Both the limited scientific view (i.e. the nutrient view) and the exaggeration of the seriousness of the problem (impacts, scope) have been used as an authoritative basis for the justification of political decisions. Both were not supported by the majority of the scientific community;
• •New scientific knowledge, not in support of existing policies, has been excluded from the policy process;
• •The science–policy interface, mainly consisting of “civil-servant scientists”, that emerged and increased its influence over the period of investigation, has been the central element in the simplification and exclusion process.

The main lesson learned is that work at the interface of science and policy must be subject to democratic principles, i.e. be transparent and involving all parties with a stake in the issue under consideration.     

Emissions of perchloroethylene from dry cleaned fabrics

A study was conducted to evaluate the emissions of perchloroethylene (tetrachloroethylene) from dry cleaned fabrics to determine: (a) how the introduction of fresh dry cleaning into a home affects the indoor concentration of perchloroethylene, and (b) the effectiveness of ‘airing out’ dry cleaned clothes in reducing perchloroethylene emissions. Small chamber tests were conducted to determine perchloroethylene emission characteristics for three fabrics at several air exchange rates. Test house studies were conducted to determine the indoor concentration of perchloroethylene due to the placement of dry cleaned clothing in the house. Based on the study results, and assuming that test conditions were representative of normal dry cleaning and consumer practices, the following conclusions were reached.

• (1)Emissions from freshly dry cleaned clothing cause elevated levels of perchloroethylene in residences.
• (2)For the three fabrics tested, ‘airing out’ of dry cleaned clothing by consumers for short time periods (4–8 h) will not be effective in reducing perchloroethylene emissions.
• (3)Adsorptive surfaces (i.e. sinks) in residences may have a major impact on consumer exposure to perchloroethylene.

It is emphasized that these conclusions are based on the results of the study reported. Significant variations in dry cleaning practices and/or in the mix of fabrics and clothing being cleaned could provide different results and conclusions.     

The relative contributions to the greenhouse effect from the use of different fuels

An attempt has been made to assess factors that indicate how various fuels affect the climate. In these factors emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are weighed together with reference to the direct and indirect effects of these gases on the long wave radiation absorption.The analysis is dependent on the time period that is to be studied. We have carried out calculations both on the basis of the coming 50-year period and on the basis of a period where the greenhouse effect is summed up after the total lifetime of the gases in the atmosphere, i.e. more than 400 years.The analyses show that the results become different according to the time period considered.The uncertainties in the calculations are due to the following:

• •the indirect effects of methane emissions, i.e. ozone formation, are difficult to assess;
• •knowledge about the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide is incomplete;
• •any other secondary effects such as emissions of carbon monoxide and other organic substances, natural and anthropogenic, may be of significance.

In addition, light should be shed on whether the results change significantly if account is also taken of the effects of the gases on the stratosphere, i.e. the depletion of the ozone layer.     

Aerosol formation and growth in atmospheric organic/NOχ systems—I. Outdoor smog chamber studies of C7- and C8-hydrocarbons

Outdoor smog chamber experiments have been performed to determine the aerosol-forming potential of selected C₇- and C₈-hydrocarbons in sunlight-irradiated hydrocarbon-NO_χ mixtures. Measured aerosol size distributions were used to determine the rates of gas-to-particle conversion and to study the effects of the addition of SO₂ and/or NH₃ on aerosol formation and growth. The average aerosol yields by mass for the hydrocarbons studied were (the range of measured values for methylcyclohexane and 1-octene are in parentheses):

• •methylcyclohexane 9.2% (0.12–18.8);
• •1-octene 4.2% (0.17–6.9);
• •toluene 18.6%;
• •n-octane <0.001%.

The average yields are accompanied by large standard deviations (see Table 3) and depended strongly on the conditions, particularly the hydrocarbon to NO_χ initial concentration ratio. Addition of SO₂ to the organic/NO_χ systems led to an early nucleation burst and subsequent rapid growth of the newly formed aerosol. In the presence of NH₃, the gas-to-particle conversion rate of the organic/NO_χ system was enhanced perhaps due to the formation of NH₄NO₃ or the reaction of NH₃ with carboxylic acids. Sustained particle formation was observed when both SO₂ and NH₃ were present, presumably as a result of (NH₄)₂SO₄ formation. We have estimated the complexity of the 1-octene aerosol and identified 5-propyl furanone as a component of the aerosol.     

Carbon conservation strategy for the management of pig slurry by composting: Initial study of the bulking agent influence

The intensification of the livestock production systems implies a potential environmental risk, associated with the great generation of animal wastes and slurries and their storage and management. Manure management is associated with considerable emissions of ammonia (NH₃) and greenhouse gases (GHG). However, the potential for GHG mitigation is highly dependent on the waste treatment strategy considered. This laboratory study aims to evaluate the influence of the type of bulking agent used on the potential reduction of the carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission, dealing with carbon (C) conservation when the solid fraction of pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) slurry is managed by composting. For this, a composting experiment in batch reactors was run with four mixtures elaborated using the solid fraction of pig slurry (SPS) and different materials (maize (Zea mays) stalks, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) straw, cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) gin and garden prunings) as bulking agents. The potential C conservation in the mixtures was evaluated by determining the CO₂ emissions; the evolution of the mixtures, the thermal profile developed and the thermodynamics of the process were also studied. The mixtures elaborated with cotton gin and garden prunings showed the fastest temperature development, and also the highest CO₂ emissions. However, the use of maize stalks as bulking agent reduced CO₂ emissions due to its slow degradability: this could constitute a suitable strategy to promote C conservation during the management of pig slurry by composting.     

Advancing pollution prevention and cleaner production – USA's contribution

In this paper, a brief history is presented of the development of pollution prevention (P2) programs and policies in both the states and by the federal government in the United States. Current trends are then discussed including the evolution of these programs, difficulties maintaining public support and prospects for the future. The 13 papers in this issue are then briefly described. They are grouped in the following four categories:

• •Government initiatives to increase use of P2 strategies and technologies
• •Purchasing initiatives
• •Sector initiatives
• •Program evaluation and measurement

The papers in this issue are representative of much larger activities in each of these categories. Most P2 activity occurs in the states and by the private sector. With the available space it is not possible to adequately represent everything that is going on in all its aspects, including academia. For the future, three grand challenges are described: maintaining public support, competing priorities affecting P2 implementation by businesses, and the challenges of documenting P2 progress.     

Sustainable tourism destinations: the importance of cleaner production

“Sustainable tourism destination” is an emerging term used in recognition schemes to promote sustainable development at destinations. This concept, which is still being developed, has the potential to stimulate the implementation of sustainable development through an interdisciplinary, holistic and integrative approach which combines different aspects of existing tools. This article will discuss the following:

• •conceptual definitions for sustainable tourism destinations
• •the need to integrate different approaches and tools for developing sustainable tourism destinations
• •the role which Cleaner Production plays in terms of developing sustainable tourism destinations

Cleaner production has an important role, to ensure that “prevention” is built into the concept of sustainable tourism destinations. It contributes by providing both a general strategy and specific experiences which may enhance other existing tools, concepts and policies. These can be integrated in a synergistic manner to achieve sustainable tourism destinations.     

A decomposition analysis of carbon dioxide emissions in the Chinese nonferrous metal industry

The nonferrous metal industry (NMI) of China consumes large amounts of energy and associated emissions of carbon dioxide (CO ₂) are very high. Actions to reduce CO ₂ emissions and energy consumption are warranted. This study aims to analyze current China NMI trends of CO ₂ emissions and energy consumption including the underlying regional driver characteristics. We analyze the changes of CO ₂ emissions in the NMI based on the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method from 2000 to 2011. Then, a classification system is used to study the regional differences in emission changes from the NMI. The results show that the emissions of the Chinese NMI increased rapidly at an average annual growth rate of 31 million metric tons. The economic scale and energy intensity are the main driving factors responsible for the change in the emissions, while carbon emission coefficients make only a small contribution toward decreasing the emissions, and the energy structure has a volatile effect. Emissions and energy intensity of 29 China provinces were divided into five categories. The change in the trend of each region is indicated in this paper. Hebei is one of the provinces that achieved the best performance, and Chongqing achieved the worst performance among all of the regions. The analysis suggests that the main emphasis of CO ₂ emission mitigation should be focused on controlling the economic scale and improving the energy intensity. Developing the use of clean energy technologies and policies in both the NMI and power industries is important.     

Stakeholder evaluation of sustainable development in the life sciences industry

Corporate sustainable development (CSD) can help to force the life sciences industry (LSI) to move from responsibility towards accountability.In terms of sustainability issues, which currently affect and occupy the LSI and their stakeholders, one could speak of 4 generations:

• •The local side-effects of operations, production, distribution and use.
• •The effects and risks of the used and applied technologies and methods.
• •The affordability and access to essential available treatments and products.
• •The necessity and need for new essential products or treatments for neglected diseases.

In order to make corporations accountable, there have been many efforts in the field of evaluation. These efforts mostly remain very general. The problem is however that the different stakeholders have diverse understandings of the various sustainability issues. The paper proposes a 2-phased stakeholder-oriented evaluation method for evaluating CSD-strategies on specific sustainability issues of the LSI in Basel, Switzerland. During the first phase, corporate commitment is challenged against the stakeholders' expectations. In the second phase, relevant stakeholders evaluate the effective corporate performance against the corporate commitment.The evaluation method was extensively tested with the stakeholders of the LSI in 5 case studies on the 4 issue generations. The method turned out to work and delivered interesting insight into managing sustainability issues.     

Preliminary results from the analysis of metal samples from the National Materials Exposure Programme (NMEP)

As part of a U.K. National Materials Exposure Programme, samples of stone and metals are being exposed at 29 sites for a minimum of 4 years. The sites were chosen to cover a wide range of environmental conditions, climate and topography. Information on meteorological conditions and atmospheric pollutants are being collected from all the sites. Four of the sites also form part of an international programme that is operating concurrently for the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).Results are reported from the exposure test on bare mild steel, galvanized steel, painted steel, copper and aluminium. Rates of corrosion in industrial areas are well below those reported for similar sites in 1930–1960, mainly because of the large fall in sulphur dioxide concentrations, and in many cases the scale is becoming increasingly protective. Rates for aluminium are extremely low.The measured mass losses have been fitted to a variety of simple multivariate correlation functions. Work using continuous corrosion monitors suggests (in agreement with the mass-loss data) that:

1. 1.(i) the rate of corrosion of steel is controlled in British conditions mainly by the long-term average sulphur dioxide concentration, and scarcely responds to short-term SO₂ episodes;
2. 2.(ii) nitrogen oxide concentrations have little effect on the rate of corrosion;
3. 3.(iii) the chloride content of rain is not a very important factor for steel corrosion rates except at a few coastal sites.

     

A systemic approach to incorporate sustainability into university courses and curricula

This article is based on an analysis of Lund University that took place during the summer and autumn of 2004 (available for download at www.iiiee.lu.se, click library and publications). The university had experienced a loss of momentum in their progress regarding environmental issues. The purpose of the study was to identify barriers to including sustainability-related content throughout Lund University curricula, and eventually to develop solutions to eliminate/overcome these barriers. The article describes how Meadows' “Places to intervene in a system” [Meadows D. Leverage points: places to intervene in a system. Hartland, VT, USA: Sustainability Institute; 1999] was used as a tool to systematically discover these barriers. The same intervention places are used as a basis for deriving solutions to eliminate/overcome the barriers. The main conclusions of this article are that Meadows list can be a useful tool to

• a.systematically identify and characterise the barriers towards achieving the organisational objective of incorporating SD into courses and curricula;
• b.identify ways to overcome these barriers;
• c.increase chances that these barriers are addressed with sufficient leverage.

The authors also experienced that the work method described here provides excellent fuel for creativity.     

Wavering between radical and realistic sustainable consumption policies: in search for the best feasible trajectories

In this article radical change in the context of sustainable development is seen as a long-term process in which steady progress in the right direction is regarded as more essential than quick success. The author argues that pressing for swift radical changes bears a serious risk of becoming counter productive, because:

• pressing for rapid change is often wasteful and may prevent the best possible ways of exploitation of innovations;

• rapid change over a wide front of applications and sectors is usually impossible;

• pressing for rapid changes usually encounters strong opposition from interest groups, thereby risking to get bogged down in acceptability discourses.

Transition management, such as for a transition towards sustainable consumption seems often to presuppose the need for radical changes. Even though the embedding function of transition management is a helpful concept and tool for sustainable consumption strategies, the lack or the negligence of the role of objective functions is a disturbing feature of transition management theories. All in all, the need for radical change should emerge as the transition process unfolds. There is no good scientific reason for a priori claims for radical changes as a kind of new dogma.     

Possible steps to follow for filling the gap between requirements and the real condition in tanneries

The tannery industry, as one of most important industrial activities, faced more dilemmas at the fall of communistic era:

• -Can the branch keep a leading position for the exported products at the national level, under a de-centralized system?
• -Can the industry comply with the new, more stringent environmental legislation?
• -How far is this industrial branch from the European BAT/BATNEC?

Facing a completely new perspective for their development, many industrial units had a limited margin for manoeuvre and those not enough flexible had to shut down.“Economic survival whatever the price” has been the mantra for some good years. The newly presented EU legislation has been raising many difficult and complex problems for the units that managed to survive that they need to prioritize their improvement actions.Combining Cleaner Production (CP) measures with laboratory research for technology upgrades can have a synergistic effect for improving environmental performance and decrease resource consumption. The effects were evaluated for more experimented measures, such as better process control, toxics use reduction, and source separation of wastes. The results demonstrate that real improvements of environmental performance can be achieved and the indicators that were utilized have values that are comparable with those published for “advanced” processes practiced in EU.