Effectiveness of wastewater management in rural areas of developing countries: a case of Al-Chouf Caza in Lebanon

Ghaggar, one of the major rivers of northern India originating in outer Himalayas and flowing through the state of Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan, is put to multiple uses. Along its course of 464 km, it receives discharge from various cities and runoff from agricultural lands. Punjab and Haryana are two predominantly agricultural states of India using substantial amounts of agrochemicals, yet there are no reports available in literature on the level of pesticides in the stretch of river Ghaggar through Punjab and Haryana. This is the first report on pesticide pollution of the river Ghaggar in Haryana. Water samples along the 230-km stretch of the river in Haryana were analyzed for the presence of organochlorine insecticide residues. While aldrin and dieldrin were below detection limits, both hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) were traceable in all the water samples. High concentration of β-HCH among ΣHCH indicates old pollution source whereas predominance of p,p^′ -DDT among ΣDDT reflects its recent use in the catchment area of the river. The concentrations of HCH and DDT in all the samples were above the permissible limits prescribed by the European Commission Directive for drinking purposes.     

Distribution of Organochlorine Pesticides in the Chao Phraya River, Thailand

Water samples from the Chao Phraya River, the main river in Thailand were collected and analyzed during 1988–1994. Organochlorine pesticides such as HCHs, DDTs, aldrin, dieldrin and chlordanes were determined. Aldrin and dieldrin had high frequencies of occurrence in water samples. The concentration median of the pesticides was approximately one order of magnitude higher than those of total HCHs and DDTs. Levels of aldrin were relatively high in the upstream while levels of DDTs were high in the urban area of Bangkok during 1989–1990. p,p-DDE levels were relatively higher in 1992. No clear trends in the levels of pesticides were observed.     

Pesticide residues in river Yamuna and its canals in Haryana and Delhi, India

Yamuna, a prominent river of India covers an extensive area of 345,843 km(2) from Yamunotri glacier through six Indian states. Residues of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) namely, isomers of HCH and endosulfan, DDT and its metabolites, aldrin, dieldrin, were analysed in water of river Yamuna along its 346 km stretch passing through Haryana-Delhi-Haryana and the canals originating from it. beta-HCH, p.p'-DDT, p.p'-DDE and p.p'-DDD had maximum traceability in test samples (95-100%) followed by gamma-HCH, alpha-HCH and o.p'-DDD (60-84%) and o.p'-DDT, delta-HCH and o.p'-DDE (7-30%) while aldrin, dieldrin, alpha and beta endosulfan remained below detection limits (BDL). The concentration of SigmaHCH and SigmaDDT at different sites of the river ranged between 12.76-593.49 ng/l (with a mean of 310.25 ng/l) and 66.17-722.94 ng/l (with a mean of 387.9 ng/l), respectively. In canals the values were found between 12.38-571.98 ng/l and 109.12-1572.22 ng/l for SigmaHCH and SigmaDDT, respectively. Water of Gurgaon canal and Western Yamuna canal contained maximum and minimum concentration, respectively both of SigmaHCH and SigmaDDT residues. Sources of these pesticides and suggested measures to check pesticide pollution of this major Indian river, keeping in view its vital link with life, are discussed in this paper.     

Organochlorine pesticide residues in sediments from coastal environment of Cantabria (northern Spain) and evaluation of the Atlantic Ocean

This paper documents levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCs) in coastal surface sediments from selected reference sites on the northern Atlantic Spanish coast. One hundred eight samples covering three estuaries in the Cantabrian Coast were sampled in 2006 and analyzed in the finer fraction (<63 ??m) for 19 OCs by gas chromatography with electron capture detector after confirmation by mass spectrometry. Detected organochlorine pesticides were endosulfan ??, endosulfan ??, endosulfan sulfate, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), aldrin, dieldrin, methoxychlor, 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene (4,4??-DDE) and 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (4,4??-DDD). Total OCs concentrations ranged from 1.8 ng g^???1 dry weight (dw) to 3.9 ng g^???1 dw, showing a uniform distribution along the studied area, and being consistent with recorded levels in the literature for coastal sediments in other reference sites with low levels of pollution by OCs along the Atlantic Ocean. Endosulfan, 4,4??-DDD, HCB, aldrin, and dieldrin seemed to be ubiquitous as the legacy of past uses and deposition. OCs concentrations were significantly correlated to organic matter content and particle size distribution. No adverse biological effects derived from these pollutants are expected to take place as it can be concluded from the comparison with the existent marine sediment quality guidelines.     

Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Wheat and Drinking Water Samples from Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

The organochlorine pesticide contamination in dietary sources has caused serious threat to the human progeny. The present study was therefore conducted to evaluate the pesticide contamination in wheat flour and drinking water from Jaipur City, Rajasthan, India using Gas Chromatograph. All the wheat and water samples were found to be contaminated with various organochlorine pesticide residues of DDT and its metabolites, HCH and its isomers, heptachlor and its expoxide and aldrin. The amount of pesticide detected in wheat flour was higher than the permissible limits prescribed by WHO/FAO. In drinking water only a few pesticides exceeded the permissible limits. Seasonal variations of pesticides residues were also observed during the study period.     

基于污染指数与ArcGIS的聊城市耕地OCPs污染研究

按8 km×8 km网格将聊城市耕地划分为136个采样点,调查六六六(BHCs)、滴滴涕(DDTs)、艾氏剂、狄氏剂、异狄氏剂、六氯苯和七氯等7种有机氯农药(OCPs)的残留状况。采用单因子污染指数和综合污染指数法进行污染评价,以此判断OCPs的污染程度。对7种OCPs在各样点中的含量进行差异分析,并应用ArcGIS8.3,以污染评价结果为数据支持,进行OCPs污染空间分布研究。结果表明,聊城市OCPs污染程度依次为DDTs>狄氏剂>七氯>艾氏剂>BHCs>异狄氏剂>六氯苯,总体变异程度依次为DDTs>狄氏剂>异狄氏剂>BHCs>七氯>六氯苯>艾氏剂。各OCPs空间分布没有固定的变化趋势;各采样点综合污染水平存在地域差异,以临清市污染最为严重,其他各县市污染较轻。     

Blood Pb Levels in pregnant Nigerian women in Abakaliki, South-Eastern Nigeria

Environmental lead (Pb) exposure and toxicity have been recognised as public health problems of global importance, affecting both the developed and developing nations. In this work, blood Pb of pregnant women that were not exposed to lead by their occupation (n?=?349), with mean ± SD age of 27.0?±?4.8 years and gestational age of 21.8?±?3.1 weeks at recruitment were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The results showed that 309 (88.5 %) of the women had a mean?±?SD blood Pb of 40.0?±?16.5 μg/dl, which is higher than the current US Centre for Disease Prevention and Control action limit (>10 μg/dl). The observed high prevalence of elevated blood Pb levels may be related to maternal low socioeconomic status. Health education is, therefore, urgently needed to sensitise the general public and the policy makers of the level of Pb exposure in Abakaliki environment and the inherent health implications. In addition to mandatory environmental lead monitoring, blood Pb screening for would-be mother is recommended, and those whose blood Pb are found elevated should be appropriately treated.     

Assessment of pesticide residues in vegetables from the Western Usambara and Uruguru Mountains in Tanzania

Assessment of levels of pesticide residues in vegetables was carried out in some villages in the Western Usambara and Uluguru Mountains of Tanzania where varieties of vegetables are grown. Tomatoes and cabbages were the most popular enterprise grown all year round and therefore were selected as the model crops for this study. Analysis of the cleaned sample extracts on a gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD) and confirmation on the Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) revealed dominance of organochlorine pesticides. Organophosphorous pesticides (parathion and marathion) were only detected in some samples, however, in most cases with higher concentrations compared to organochlorine pesticides. Levels of pesticide residues detected in vegetables were up to: parathion 5.07 μg/Kg, marathion 3.73 μg/Kg, α-endosulfan 0.32 μg/Kg, β-endosulfan 0.53 μg/Kg, dieldrin 1.36 μg/Kg, γ-HCH 0.25 μg/Kg, α-HCH 0.09 μg/Kg, and p, p′-DDT 0.64 μg/Kg. These results clearly show that vegetables are contaminated with different pesticide residues. However, the total levels of pesticide residues in both tomatoes and cabbages are lower than their respective codex alimentarius maximum residue levels (MRLs). This means that the vegetables produced in the area are suitable for human consumption.     

Residual levels, tissue distribution and risk assessment of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in edible fishes from Taihu Lake, China

Tissue distribution and bioaccumulation of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in edible fishes collected from Taihu Lake, Cyprinus carpio (C. carpio) and Ctenopharyngodon idellus (C. idellus), were studied. OCPs were detected in all samples with hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), aldrins (including aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, and endrin ketone), heptachlors (heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) being the predominant compounds for both fish species. Gill and gonad were found to be the dominant tissues for OCP bioaccumulation followed by liver, while muscle showed the least affinity of OCPs for both fishes. Tissue distribution indicated the exchange of contaminants between water and gill, as well as the food intake from environment were the dominant pathways for OCP bioaccumulation in gill-breathing fish, and the following tissue distribution was affected by both the physiological properties of target tissues and physicochemical characteristics of pesticides. OCP residues in fish were species-specific (45.63–1575.26 ng/g dry weight (dw) for C. idellus; 8.40–60.23 ng/g dw for C. carpio) mainly due to the growth rate of individuals as well as the metabolic capacity difference among species. HCHs and DDTs observed in fishes from Taihu Lake were comparable and moderate with other reported places in China. Human exposure risk assessment performed with the estimated daily intake values demonstrated the consumption of target fish species in Taihu Lake at present was safe.     

Monitoring of organochlorine pesticides in and around Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, India

Keoladeo National Park (KNP) is an important wintering ground for thousands of birds that undertake a perilous journey over the Himalaya to make a seasonal home in a wetland ecosystem. However, this wetland is now getting polluted by various types of contaminants such as pesticides because of the agricultural practices in the catchment area from where the park receives water. Keeping this in mind, the present study has been undertaken to assess the organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues in the sediments inside and around KNP. Samples were collected from the different blocks of the park. The concentrations of α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH, S-HCH, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, hept.epoxide, endosulfan-I, endosulfan-II, endo.sulfate, S-endosulfan, endrin, 4,4'-DDE, 4,4'-DDD, and DDT were quantified using gas chromatography with electron capture detection. Analysis showed that the samples were contaminated with the above mentioned pesticides and that the concentration of total OCPs in the sediments varied from 0.1173 (dieldrin) to 5.558 ppm (γ HCH) in the samples collected from inside the park, whereas a range of pesticides varying in concentration from 0.1245 (4,4'-DDD) to 7.54 ppm (γ HCH) was found in samples from outside the park. Residues of S-HCH and S-endosulfan were not detected in any of the sediment samples. The occurrence of pesticides inside the park is a major threat to the park's biodiversity. Eco-friendly agriculture practices with minimal use of inorganic chemicals are suggested to minimize the pesticide residue levels in the park.     

Status and effect of pesticide residues in soils under different land uses of Andaman Islands, India

Pesticides are shown to have a great effect on soil organisms, but the effect varies with pesticide group and concentration, and is modified by soil organic carbon content and soil texture. In the humid tropical islands of Andaman, India, no systematic study was carried out on pesticide residues in soils of different land uses. The present study used the modified QuEChERS method for multiresidue extraction from soils and detection with a gas chromatograph. DDT and its various metabolites, α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, endosulfan sulfate, aldrin, and fenvalerate, were detected from the study area. Among the different pesticide groups detected, endosulfan and DDT accounted for 41.7 % each followed by aldrin (16.7 %) and synthetic pyrethroid (8.3 %). A significantly higher concentration of pesticide residues was detected in rice–vegetable grown in the valley followed by rice–fallow and vegetable–fallow in the coastal plains. Soil microbial biomass carbon is negatively correlated with the total pesticide residues in soils, and it varied from 181.2 to 350.6 mg?kg^?1. Pesticide residues have adversely affected the soil microbial populations, more significantly the bacterial population. The Azotobacter population has decreased to the extent of 51.8 % while actinomycetes were the least affected though accounted for 32 % when compared to the soils with no residue.     

Pesticide residues in sediments and aquatic species in Lake Nokoué and Cotonou Lagoon in the Republic of Bénin

Lake Nokoué and Cotonou Lagoon are the most important and most productive continental freshwaters in Bénin, with an estimated fish production of over 2 tonnes per hectare in Lake Nokoué. Organochlorine pesticides are used in agriculture and to repel tsetse flies, malaria mosquitoes and other diseases raised. Sediment, fish, shrimp and oyster species were collected in Lake Nokoué and Cotonou Lagoon for pesticide residues analysis. The main pesticides identified in sediment were pp′-DDT and its metabolites pp-DDE and pp′-DDD, with residue levels between the detection limit and 24.4 μg/kg dry weight. Fish species commonly consumed such as Elops lacerta, Podamasys jubelini, Gobbienellus occidentalis, Ethmalosa fimbriata, Mugil cephalus and Hemichromis fasciatus were contaminated with residues of seven to nine pesticides, including pp-DDE, op′-DDD, pp′-DDD, op′-DDT, pp′-DDT, α-endosulfan, aldrin, dieldrin and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane. The levels ranged from detection limit to 289 ng/g lipid. The same pesticides were also detected in other aquatic species, such as shrimp and oysters. A summed risk assessment, comparing pesticide intake levels through fish consumption with tolerable daily intake levels proposed by the World Health Organization, showed in all cases a low risk for human health.     

气相色谱法测定赤水河中段水体中14种有机氯农药的残留

建立了用正己烷萃取,气相色谱—电子捕获（GC—ECD）测定水体中有机氯农药痕量残留的方法。结果表明：六氯苯、α-HCH、β-HCH、γ-HCH、δ-HCH、p,p′-DDD、p,p′-DDE、p,p′-DDT、艾氏剂、狄氏剂、异狄氏剂、七氯、环氧七氯、o,p′-DDT 14种农药在14 min内有较好的分离;2个不同浓...     

Organochlorine insecticide residues in agricultural soils of the indo-gangetic plain

Multiple residues of organochlorine insecticides were monitored in the agricultural fields near Farrukhabad in the vicinity of the River Ganga in northern India for one year (1991–1992). Almost all soil samples were found to be contaminated with residues of hexachlorocylohexane (HCH) and dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Residues of aldrin and endosulfan were also detected in a large number of samples. Heptachlor residues were scarcely detected. Alpha-HCH, pp-DDT and alpha-endosulfan were found to dominate over the other isomers/metabolites of HCH, DDT and endosulfan, respectively. The average concentration of dieldrin was more than that of aldrin. The concentrations of residues progressively increased up to a depth of 1 m.     

Anthropogenic nexus on organochlorine pesticide pollution: a case study with Tamiraparani river basin,South India

The levels of 17 organochlorine pesticides residues (OCPs) in surface water and sediments from Tamiraparani river basin, South India were investigated to evaluate their potential pollution and risk impacts. A total of 96 surface water and sediment samples at 12 sampling stations were collected along the river in four seasons during 2008–2009. The ΣOCP concentrations in surface water and sediments were in the range of 0.1 to 79.9 ng l⁻¹ and 0.12 to 3,938.7 ng g⁻¹ dry weight (dw), respectively. Among the OCPs, the levels of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), aldrin, dieldrin, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, and mirex were dominant in the sediments. The dominant OCPs in water samples are heptachlor, o,p′-DDE, dieldrin, o,p′-DDD, and mirex, which show different source of contamination pattern among sampling seasons. The distribution pattern of DDTs, hexachlorocyclohexane, and other OCPs in the present study shows heterogenic nature of nonpoint source of pollution. Notable contamination of water and sediment sample that was observed in upstream (S2) 58 ng l⁻¹ and downstream (S11) 1,693 ng g⁻¹ dw explains agricultural and municipal outfalls, whereas frequent damming effect reduces the concentration level in the midstream. The overall spatial–temporal distribution pattern of ΣOCP residues are illustrated by GIS package.     

Organochlorine residual concentrations in cattle egret from the Punjab Province, Pakistan

In this study, residual concentration of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the sediments, prey, and eggs of Bubulcus ibis were measured from three breeding heronries from the Punjab province of Pakistan. Pattern of contamination in eggs followed the order: DDTs > HCHs > heptachlor > aldrin. Overall, pesticide residual concentrations were greater in eggs of cattle egrets collected from heronry on the River Ravi. Among HCHs, ??-HCH was more prevalent in eggs, whereas DDTs followed the order: DDD > DDE > p,p ^??-DDT > o,p ^??-DDT. Eggshell thinning was detected which showed negative relationship with residual concentration of DDE. In prey samples, residual concentration of POPs followed the order: DDTs > HCHs > dicofol > heptachlor; however, contamination pattern in sediments followed a slightly different order: DDTs > heptachlor > dicofol > HCHs > dieldrin > aldrin. Concentration of ??-HCH was more prevalent in sediments and comparatively greater concentrations of POPs were measured in sediments collected from the River Ravi. Dicofol was found for the very first time in the biological samples from Pakistan, and its concentration was measured as relatively high in eggs from heronry from the River Chenab. Residual concentrations measured in eggs were below the levels that could affect egret populations. Biomagnification of the total OCPs through the food chain was evident in three breeding heronries. The concentration of DDE measured in eggs of the cattle egret suggests the need for monitoring this contaminant in other bird species at different trophic levels.     

Organochlorine pesticides in the dust fall around Lake Chaohu, the fifth largest lake in China

The residual levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the dust fall around Lake Chaohu were measured using gas chromatography mass spectrometry from April 2010 to March 2011. The fluxes, components, temporal–spatial variations, and sources of OCPs were also analyzed. Twenty-one types of OCPs were detected in the dust fall samples around Lake Chaohu, with a total concentration of 51.54?±?36.31 ng/g and a total flux of 10.01?±?13.69 ng/(m² day). Aldrin (35.3 %), endosulfan (39.1 %), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) (49.8 %), and isodrin (37.1 %) were the major OCPs in the spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively. Both the residual level and the flux were higher in the spring than in other seasons and higher at the outer lake sampling sites than inner lake sampling site. The potential source of the hexachlorcyclohexanes in the dust fall may be recent lindane usage. The DDTs mainly came from historical dicofol usage, and a significant input of DDT was found during April and June. The presence of endosulfan may be due to the present use of technical endosulfan. The aldrin in the dust might be due to its occasional usage, and isodrin may be a result of long-distance transport from other countries.     

Persistent Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Soil and Surface Water of Northern Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plains

This study reports the concentration levels and distribution pattern of the organochlorine pesticide (OCPs) residues in the soil and surface water samples collected from the northern Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains. A total of 31 soil and 23 surface water samples were collected from the study region in Unnao district covering an area of 2150 km² and analyzed for aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, HCB, HCH isomers, DDT isomers/metabolites, endosulfan isomers (α and β), endosulfan sulfate, heptachlor and its metabolites, α-chlordane, γ-chlordane and methoxychlor. In both the soil and surface water samples β- and δ-isomers of HCH were detected most frequently, whereas, methoxychlor was the least detected pesticide. The results showed contamination of soil and surface water of the region with several persistent organic pesticides. The total OCPs level ranged from 0.36–104.50 ng g^–1 and 2.63–3.72 μg L^–1 in soil and surface water samples, respectively.     

Toxic and essential elements in blood from delivering women in selected areas of São Paulo State, Brazil

This study was designed to evaluate the degree of environmental contamination and possible exposure of pregnant women to toxic elements in seven selected areas of S?o Paulo State, Brazil. The overall median concentration of Mo in maternal blood was 0.53 μg L?1, highly significant differences found between sites (p < 0.0001). Cd was found to be low overall - 0.09 μg L?1 (0.01-0.58 μg L?1) - with mothers from the Coastal and Rural 1 sites having the highest levels (p < 0.016).Median Hg concentration was 0.60 μg L?1 (0.06 μg L?1-4.35 μg L?1); median Pb level was 16.2 μg L?1 (3.5-57.7 μg L?1) and no differences between sites were observed for both metals. Median Mn level was 16.7 μg L?1 (7.0-39.7 μg L?1), being highest in Urban 2 site (p < 0.016). Concentrations of maternal Co were found to range between 0.06 μg L?1 and 1.1 μg L?1 (median 0.25 μg L?1) and As level was 0.60 μg L?1 (0.10-3.8 μg L?1) overall, with no statistical significance between sites for Co and As. Median Se concentrations were found to be 64 μg L?1 (36-233 μg L?1), with the highest median levels found in Urban 3 site; site differences were statistically significant (p < 0.0001). Correlation for each element (between paired maternal and cord blood) was measured only in Rural site 1; significant correlation was shown for Hg, Pb, Mn and Co (p < 0.05). These findings may be interpreted as indicating low environmental contamination in S?o Paulo State, Brazil. These findings could also indicate that pregnant women have little or no contact with pollutants, possibly due to awareness campaigns carried out by public health practitioners.