How emergency managers (mis?)interpret forecasts

Emergency managers who work on floods and other weather‐related hazards constitute critical frontline responders to disasters. Yet, while these professionals operate in a realm rife with uncertainty related to forecasts and other unknowns, the influence of uncertainty on their decision‐making is poorly understood. Consequently, a national‐level survey of county emergency managers in the United States was administered to examine how they interpret forecast information, using hypothetical climate, flood, and weather scenarios to simulate their responses to uncertain information. The study revealed that even emergency managers with substantial experience take decision shortcuts and make biased choices, just as do members of the general population. Their choices vary depending on such features as the format in which probabilistic forecasts are presented and whether outcomes are represented as gains or losses. In sum, forecast producers who consider these decision processes when developing and communicating forecasts could help to improve flood preparation and potentially reduce disaster losses.     

An ethical analysis of hydrometeorological prediction and decision making: The case of the 1997 Red River flood

Weather, climate, and flood predictions are incorporated into human decisions in a wide variety of situations, including decisions related to hazardous hydrometeorological events. This article examines ethical aspects of such predictions and decisions, focusing on the case of the 1997 Red River flood in Grand Forks, North Dakota and East Grand Forks, Minnesota (US). The analysis employs a formal ethical framework and analytical method derived from medical and business ethics. The results of the analysis highlight issues related to forecast generation, communication of forecast meaning and uncertainty, responsibility for the use of forecasts in decision making, and trade-offs between the desire for forecast certainty and the risk of missed events. Implications of the analysis for the broader arenas of weather, climate, and flood prediction and disaster management are also discussed.     

An ethical analysis of hydrometeorological prediction and decision making: The case of the 1997 Red River flood

Weather, climate, and flood predictions are incorporated into human decisions in a wide variety of situations, including decisions related to hazardous hydrometeorological events. This article examines ethical aspects of such predictions and decisions, focusing on the case of the 1997 Red River flood in Grand Forks, North Dakota and East Grand Forks, Minnesota (US). The analysis employs a formal ethical framework and analytical method derived from medical and business ethics. The results of the analysis highlight issues related to forecast generation, communication of forecast meaning and uncertainty, responsibility for the use of forecasts in decision making, and trade-offs between the desire for forecast certainty and the risk of missed events. Implications of the analysis for the broader arenas of weather, climate, and flood prediction and disaster management are also discussed.     

洪涝灾害灾情时间变化特性分析——以中国1736～1911年主要大江大河流域变化序列分析为例

利用已经建立的全国1736～1911年洪涝灾害时间序列，拟合了各个区域的洪涝灾害长期变化趋势，并通过功率谱分析了时间序列的波动规律；同时，分析了气温，降水等自然因素的变化和人口总量变化、人口空间迁移以及土地利用变化等人文因素变化与灾害增减之间的关系。结果表明，洪涝灾害的波动主要由气候变化等自然因素的波动所引起，而人类活动增强并不断向高风险区扩展是洪涝灾害持续增长的主要原因，最终使洪涝灾害表现为在波动中持续增长。     

气候变化与自然灾害

气候变化与自然灾害是当今科学研究的两大热点，两者之间在一定程度上具有相关性，但目前要确切地定量计算气候变化对自然灾害的强度和出现频率的影响还很困难。本文在分析气候变化与自然灾害关系的基础上，研究了气候变化对我国自然灾害的影响。研究结果显示：１．在千年尺度上，长江流域的大旱和气候变冷成正相关，而长江流域的大涝以及黄河流域的大旱和大涝与气候冷暖过渡期成正相关；２．在百年尽度上，近１０４２年来，共出现２８１次全国性大旱和大涝，平均每百年出现２７次，在地域分布上以南涝北旱为主；３．就百年至千年尺度的气候变化对自然灾害的影响而言，气候冷冷组合期（１３０１～１９００）易发生全国性大涝，而冷暖组合期（９５０～１３００年，１９０１～１９９１年）易发生全国性大旱。总的来说，冷冷组合期的大旱大涝发生频率明显大于暖期，但不同地区有差异；４．在其它影响方面，台风、地震与海啸灾害在冷暖组合期（２０世纪）均有比冷冷组合期（１４和１９世纪）多的趋势。因此，气候变暖将使防灾任务更加艰巨。     

洪涝灾害灾情时间变化特性分析：以中国1736—1911年主要大江大？…

利用已经建立的全国１７３６￣１９１１年洪涝灾害时间序列，拟合各个区域的洪涝灾害长期变化趋势，并通过功率谱分析了时间序列的波动规律；同时，分析了气温、降水等自然因素的变化和人口总量变化、人口空间迁移以及土地利用变化等人文因素变化与灾害增减之间的关系。结果表明，洪涝灾害的波动主要由气候变化等自然因素的波动所引起，而人类活动增强并不断向高风险区扩展是洪涝灾害持续增长的主要原因，最终使洪涝灾害表现为波动中     

Fiji's worst natural disaster: the 1931 hurricane and flood

At least 225 people in the Fiji Islands died as a result of the 1931 hurricane and flood, representing the largest loss of life from a natural disaster in Fiji's recent history. This paper explores the causes of disaster and the potential for recurrence. The disaster occurred because a rare event surprised hundreds of people—especially recently settled Indian farmers—occupying highly exposed floodplains in north‐west Viti Levu island. The likelihood of a flood disaster of such proportions occurring today has been diminished by changed settlement patterns and building materials; however, a trend towards re‐occupancy of floodplains, sometimes in fragile dwellings, is exposing new generations to flood risks. The contribution of this paper to the global hazards literature is set out in three sections: the ethnicity, gender and age of flood fatalities; the naturalness of disasters; and the merit of choice and constraint as explanations for patterns of vulnerability.     

上海降雨特征及其对城市水情灾害的影响

利用上海降雨资料,分析了上海汛期降雨的变化和最大年日雨量极值的累积分布规律,近期降雨空间分布、暴雨频度和强降雨特征,及气候因子对水情灾害的影响。结果显示,汛期雨量大小对水情灾害影响较为复杂,大暴雨或强降雨是造成水情灾害的重要原因。初步探讨和提出了气候因子的灾害危险评估方法,并对上海各区(县)近期的暴雨灾害影响进行了危险评估;暴雨对上海地区水情灾害影响差异明显,崇明、市中心区和浦东新区暴雨灾害危险较大,南部地区的青浦、金山、奉贤和松江区危险较小。     

突出洪灾事件对新疆潜在气候转型的响应

从新疆近250年来的水文突出事件——洪灾的分析人手，探讨了其与新近提出的可能气候转型期降水变化的联系。结果表明，小冰期末以来新疆存在5个比较明显的重大洪灾时段。每一个时段基本上都对应着降水偏多时期，同时也对应着比较明显的气候转折期，前两次对应气温下降降水减少期，后三次对应气温升高降水增多期。20世纪80年代中期前后，洪灾灾情差异显著。20世纪80年代中期以来新，疆洪水及其灾害事件对气候(降水)变化响应较明显，表现出随着降水的增加，洪灾灾情加重、主要河流洪水洪峰流量突破历史极值的情况。这为气候转型观点的成立提供了一定的依据，并且还初步印证了前人有关气候转型初期自然灾害频发和洪水量级增大的论断。     

Lateral knowledge: shifting expertise for disaster management in Chile

Deemed as technocratic and exclusionary, disaster management has failed in its promise of knowing, let alone controlling, catastrophic events. Consequently, disaster managers are searching outside of science for sense‐making analytics. This paper analyses the emergent narratives articulated by disaster managers in Chile to cope with the uncertain nature of their object of intervention. It explores how knowledge of disasters is modified and enriched by disaster managers in what is termed here as ‘lateral knowledge’: the epistemic adjustment by which practitioners revalidate their expert status by expanding key assumptions about disaster risk reduction. The study, which draws on in‐depth interviews with disaster managers in Chile, suggests that lateral knowledge is established both through the increasing validation of community knowledge and the recognition of politics as a critical mediator in the practice of disaster management. The paper concludes by making the larger point that public understanding of science scholars should pay more attention to the adapting capacities of expertise.     

济南市城市扩展与城市暴雨洪灾

阐述了济南市城市扩展历程和城市暴雨洪灾概况,分析了济南市城市暴雨洪灾的成因.研究结果表明,浅盆地形和多暴雨的气候条件是济南市城市暴雨洪灾的自然致灾因素,而城市扩展后,城市雨岛效应增加了市区暴雨出现的频率与强度,城市外部排水变为内部排水,对下垫面性质及自然沟道、洼地的改造使城市洪量增大,滞时减小等,加剧了济南市城市暴雨洪灾的量级和频度.为应对严峻的城市暴雨洪灾,提出了排蓄结合的应对措施.即从源头上减少流经城区的洪水量,加强排水系统的整治,建立健全雨情、水情遥测网和城市防洪调度决策支持系统.     

气候变暖背景下西南四省市暴雨洪涝灾害风险变化

为了对西南地区气候变暖前后四省市相对灾情指数变化、暴雨洪涝相对灾情概率分布和暴雨洪涝灾害致灾因子危险性风险进行评价,采用西南地区四省市83个气象站点的逐日降水和气温资料、以及灾情数据等,首先利用突变检验确定气候变化突变年,然后借助灰色关联法、信息分配法以及熵权法等进行分析。结果表明:西南地区四省市年平均气温于1998年发生突变,总体以0.26℃/10年的速率呈显著性上升趋势;四个省市1978-2018年间的相对灾情指数主要集中在0.65~0.85之间,其中以小灾、中灾居多,变暖后较变暖前大灾发生频次增加显著;暴雨洪涝致灾因子危险性评估中指数变化主要呈西南-东北走向,两边为危险性增加区域、中间地区增幅较少或有所减小,川渝地区在变暖前后暴雨洪涝灾害危险性均高于云贵地区。     

基于GIS的上海浦东暴雨内涝灾害脆弱性研究

随着全球气候变化和城市化进程的加速发展,城市暴雨洪涝灾害的频度和强度不断加强。灾害脆弱性研究是当前灾害研究的热点,基于灾损率的脆弱性分析方法是当前灾害脆弱性研究的重要课题点与前沿。采用G IS和遥感技术,依据20年、50年、100年、200年、500年、1000年一遇的6个重现期情景,对上海浦东新区开展了基于灾损曲线的脆弱性研究。研究中修正了上海地区的径流模型,基于G IS栅格编制了不同重现期的淹没深度图,实地调查了研究区暴雨内涝灾害的灾损率数据,确定了研究区的脆弱性等级划分,并利用G IS编制了基于不同重现期情景的上海浦东脆弱性图。研究中提出的方法对于沿海城市开展暴雨内涝等自然灾害脆弱性研究具有借鉴意义,研究结果可供区域灾害风险评估和防灾减灾规划参考。     

中国水灾风险综合管理--平衡大都市区水灾致灾强度与脆弱性

中国大都市区主要分布在大江大河的中下游地区,由于区域土地利用格局的巨大变化,特别是较多的水域和湿地因城市化而被占据,因此,一方面大都市区面临严重的洪水危险,另一方面为了使大都市区尽可能减轻洪水灾害,而加强了防洪能力的建设.然而,近50年的减灾实践证明,洪水灾害却在波动中趋于上升,即大都市区对洪水的脆弱性在增大.在对中国大都市区洪水灾害的区域分析基础上,以广东省为例,构造了综合水灾致灾因子和承灾体为一体的风险评估模型体系,以此提出了平衡大都市区水灾致灾强度与脆弱性的基本土地利用模式,和"政府-企业(社区)-保险公司"相结合的企业风险管理模式.     

Nation‐building policies in Timor‐Leste: disaster risk reduction,including climate change adaptation

Few studies have explored the relationships between nation‐building, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Focusing on small island developing states, this paper examines nation‐building in Timor‐Leste, a small island developing state that recently achieved independence. Nation‐building in Timor‐Leste is explored in the context of disaster risk reduction, which necessarily includes climate change adaptation. The study presents a synopsis of Timor‐Leste's history and its nation‐building efforts as well as an overview of the state of knowledge of disaster risk reduction including climate change adaptation. It also offers an analysis of significant gaps and challenges in terms of vertical and horizontal governance, large donor presence, data availability and the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation for nation‐building in Timor‐Leste. Relevant and applicable lessons are provided from other small island developing states to assist Timor‐Leste in identifying its own trajectory out of underdevelopment while it builds on existing strengths.     

渭河流域"05.10"洪涝灾害特征分析

利用2005年9~10月渭河流域内各气象站和水文站的资料,对2005年渭河流域致洪暴雨的雨情、水情及灾情进行分析。对洪水的特征,水情、河道的概况,特大洪灾的降水特点进行总结,得出“05.10”洪水具有降水范围广、水位高、洪水倒灌、灾害重等特征,造成的经济损失严重。揭示了洪灾形成的主要原因,从而对减少洪灾的形成和流域的治理提出有关建议,达到防灾减灾的目的。     

西藏公路水毁灾害

位于我国西南边陲、青藏高原西南部的西藏，由于特殊的地质地貌条件和气候影响，公路水毁灾害十分严重。本文就西藏公路水毁灾害的基本特点、类型、主要因素和发展趋势进行了剖析。     

The evolving local social contract for managing climate and disaster risk in Vietnam

How do disasters shape local government legitimacy in relation to managing climate‐ and disaster‐related risks? This paper looks at how local authorities in Central Vietnam perceive their social contract for risk reduction, including the partial merging of responsibilities for disaster risk management with new plans for and investments in climate change adaptation and broader socioeconomic development. The findings indicate that extreme floods and storms constitute critical junctures that stimulate genuine institutional change. Local officials are proud of their strengthened role in disaster response and they are eager to boost investment in infrastructure. They have struggled to reinforce their legitimacy among their constituents, but given the shifting roles of the state, private sector, and civil society, and the undiminished emphasis on high‐risk development models, their responsibilities for responding to emerging climate change scenarios are increasingly nebulous. The past basis for legitimacy is no longer valid, but tomorrow's social contract is not yet defined.     

Community-based Disaster Management During the 1997 Red River Flood in Canada

This paper examines the relationship between community preparedness and response to natural disaster and their level and pattern of community development. This is done by investigating preparation and response to the 1997 Red River Flood by three rural communities in Manitoba, Canada. The communities were selected because of their different ethnic mix and associated level and pattern of community development. The hypothesis was supported that the level and pattern of community development affect community capacity to respond to flooding. Communities characterised by higher levels of physical, human and social capital were better prepared and more effective responders to the flood. However, where the pattern of community development was characterised by high levels of social capital, decision-making processes were complicated.     

Community social capital and individual functioning in the post‐disaster context

Disasters can have severe and long‐lasting consequences for individuals and communities. While scholarly evidence indicates that access to social support can ameliorate their negative impacts, less understood is whether or not neighbourhood social capital can facilitate recovery. This study uses two waves of survey data—collected before and after a significant flood in Brisbane, Australia, in 2011—to examine the relationship between the severity of the event at the individual and neighbourhood level, access to neighbourhood social capital and individual‐level social support, and functioning in the post‐disaster environment. In line with previous research, the results indicate that the severity of the flood is the most salient predictor of post‐disaster functioning. No evidence was unearthed to show that neighbourhood social capital amassed before the flood leads to better functioning subsequently, but the findings do suggest that individual‐level social support can moderate the effect of flood severity on functioning.