Meta-analysis of environmental contamination by phthalates

Phthalate acid esters (PAE), commonly named phthalates, are toxics classified as endocrine-disrupting compounds; they are primarily used as additives to improve the flexibility in polyvinyl chloride. Many studies have reported the occurrence of phthalates in different environmental matrices; however, none of these studies has yet established a complete overview for those compounds in the water cycle within an urban environment. This review summarizes PAE concentrations for all environmental media throughout the water cycle, from atmosphere to receiving waters. Once the occurrences of compounds have been evaluated for each environmental compartment (urban wastewater, wastewater treatment plants, atmosphere, and the natural environment), we reviewed data in order to identify the fate of PAE in the environment and establish whether geographical and historical trends exist. Indeed, geographical and historical trends appear between Europe and other countries such as USA/Canada and China, however they remain location dependent. This study aimed at identifying both the correlations existing between environmental compartments and the processes influencing the fate and transport of these contaminants into the environment. In Europe, the concentrations measured in waterways today represent the background level of contamination, which provides evidence of a past diffuse pollution. In contrast, an increasing trend has actually been observed for developing countries, especially for China.     

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in Arctic environments: indicator contaminants for assessing local and remote anthropogenic sources in a pristine ecosystem in change

A first review on occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is presented. The literature survey conducted here was initiated by the current Assessment of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP). This first review on the occurrence and environmental profile of PPCPs in the Arctic identified the presence of 110 related substances in the Arctic environment based on the reports from scientific publications, national and regional assessments and surveys, as well as academic research studies (i.e., PhD theses). PPCP residues were reported in virtually all environmental compartments from coastal seawater to high trophic level biota. For Arctic environments, domestic and municipal wastes as well as sewage are identified as primary release sources. However, the absence of modern waste water treatment plants (WWTPs), even in larger settlements in the Arctic, is resulting in relatively high release rates for selected PPCPs into the receiving Arctic (mainly) aquatic environment. Pharmaceuticals are designed with specific biochemical functions as a part of an integrated therapeutically procedure. This biochemical effect may cause unwanted environmental toxicological effects on non-target organisms when the compound is released into the environment. In the Arctic environments, pharmaceutical residues are released into low to very low ambient temperatures mainly into aqueous environments. Low biodegradability and, thus, prolonged residence time must be expected for the majority of the pharmaceuticals entering the aquatic system. The environmental toxicological consequence of the continuous PPCP release is, thus, expected to be different in the Arctic compared to the temperate regions of the globe. Exposure risks for Arctic human populations due to consumption of contaminated local fish and invertebrates or through exposure to resistant microbial communities cannot be excluded. However, the scientific results reported and summarized here, published in 23 relevant papers and reports (see Table S1 and following references), must still be considered as indication only. Comprehensive environmental studies on the fate, environmental toxicology, and distribution profiles of pharmaceuticals applied in high volumes and released into the Nordic environment under cold Northern climate conditions should be given high priority by national and international authorities.     

Chemical speciation and bioavailability of rare earth elements (REEs) in the ecosystem: a review

Rare earths (RE), chemically uniform group of elements due to similar physicochemical behavior, are termed as lanthanides. Natural occurrence depends on the geological circumstances and has been of long interest for geologist as tools for further scientific research into the region of ores, rocks, and oceanic water. The review paper mainly focuses to provide scientific literature about rare earth elements (REEs) with potential environmental and health effects in understanding the research. This is the initial review of RE speciation and bioavailability with current initiative toward development needs and research perceptive. In this paper, we have also discussed mineralogy, extraction, geochemistry, analytical methods of rare earth elements. In this study, REEs with their transformation and vertical distribution in different environments such as fresh and seawater, sediments, soil, weathering, transport, and solubility have been reported with most recent literature along key methods of findings. Speciation and bioavailability have been discussed in detail with special emphasis on soil, plant, and aquatic ecosystems and their impacts on the environment. This review shows that REE gained more importance in last few years due to their detrimental effects on living organisms, so their speciation, bioavailability, and composition are much more important to evaluate their health risks and are discussed thoroughly as well.     

污水处理中几种去除药物及个人护理用品方法的机理及效果比较

目前广泛分布在环境中的药物及个人护理品（pharmaceuticals and personal care products, PPCPs）在环境中的迁移、转化和处理已成为环境科学与工程研究的一个新的领域。污水处理厂排水是PPCPs进入环境中的主要途径。介绍了污水处理过程中传统活性污泥法、膜处理技术以及氧化处理等主要工艺对PPCPs的去除机理，并对去除效果进行了比较。以传统活性污泥法及在其改进后的膜处理技术为基础的大部分现有污水处理厂只能够去除一部分PPCPs，并且主要通过吸附（如对于吐纳麝香、佳乐麝香、萨利麝香等脂溶性较高的有机物）和生物降解作用（如对于布洛芬，17β-雌二醇，雌酮等易反应的有机物）。然而，吸附了PPCPs的污泥通过土壤施肥又将PPCPs带入土壤中，进而会渗滤到地下水，或随径流水进入地表水中。因此，PPCPs并没有从根本上得以去除。相比之下氧化处理工艺（如氯化、臭氧氧化、紫外辐射）或这些工艺的组合能够将大部分的PPCPs进行氧化，去除效果明显优于以上2种技术。然而，氧化后产物的种类和毒理性需要更深入的研究。     

A multispecies study to assess the toxic and genotoxic effect of pharmaceuticals: furosemide and its photoproduct

Pharmaceutical products for humans and animals, as well as their related metabolites end up in the aquatic environment after use. Recent investigations show that concentrations of pharmaceuticals are detectable in the order of ng/l-mug/l in municipal wastewater, groundwater and also drinking water. Little is known about the effects, and the hazard of long-term exposure to low concentrations of pharmaceuticals for non-target aquatic organisms. This study was designed to assess the ecotoxicity of furosemide, a potent diuretic agent, and its photoproduct in the aquatic environment. Bioassays were performed on bacteria, algae, rotifers and microcrustaceans to assess acute and chronic toxicity, while the SOS Chromotest and the Ames test were utilized to detect the genotoxic potential of the investigated compounds. A first approach to risk characterization was to calculate the environmental impact of furosemide by measured environmental concentration and predicted no effect concentration ratio (MEC/PNEC). To do so we used occurrence data reported in the literature and our toxicity results. The results showed that acute toxicity was in the order of mg/l for the crustaceans and absent for bacteria and rotifers. Chronic exposure to these compounds caused inhibition of growth population on the consumers, while the algae did not seem to be affected. A mutagenic potential was found for the photoproduct compared to the parental compound suggesting that byproducts ought to be considered in the environmental assessment of drugs. The risk calculated for furosemide suggested its harmlessness on the aquatic compartment.     

Microplastics in aquatic environment: characterization,ecotoxicological effect,implications for ecosystems and developments in South Africa

Microplastics are small-size plastic piece scales (particles <?5 mm) in sediments and waters which interact with environment and organisms by various means. Microplastics are becoming a universal ecological concern since they may be a source of hazardous chemicals to marine organisms and environments. Recent research suggests microplastics could enable the transfer of hydrophobic aquatic pollutants or chemical additives to biota. Even though microplastic presence and interactions are recently being detected in marine and freshwater systems, the fate of microplastics is still very poorly understood. This literature review is a summary of the sources and transport of microplastics, their interactions with toxic chemicals and the methodologies for chemical quantification and characterization of microplastics. The environmental outcome and impact of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants were assessed as well as the trends and update on microplastic research in the South African aquatic ecosystem.

     

Occurrences and potential risks of 16 fragrances in five German sewage treatment plants and their receiving waters

Fragrances are used in a wide array of everyday products and enter the aquatic environment via wastewater. While several musk compounds have been studied in detail, little is known about the occurrence and fate of other fragrances. We selected 16 fragrance compounds and scrutinized their presence in Bavarian sewage treatment plants (STP) influents and effluents and discussed their ecological risks for the receiving surface waters. Moreover, we followed their concentrations along the path in one STP by corresponding time-related water sampling and derived the respective elimination rates in the purification process. Six fragrance substances (OTNE, HHCB, lilial, acetyl cedrene, menthol, and, in some grab samples, also methyl-dihydrojasmonate) could be detected in the effluents of the investigated sewage treatment plants. The other fragrances under scrutiny were only found in the inflow and were eliminated in the purification process. Only OTNE and HHCB were found in the receiving surface waters of the STP in congruent concentrations, which exceeded the preliminary derived environmental thresholds by a factor of 1.15 and 1.12, respectively, indicating potential risks. OTNE was also detected in similar concentration ranges as HHCB in muscles and livers of fish from surface waters and from ponds that are supplied with purified wastewater. The findings show that some fragrance compounds undergo high elimination rates, whereas others—not only musks—are present in receiving surface water and biota and may present a risk to local aquatic biota. Hence, our results suggest that the fate and potential effects of fragrance compounds in the aquatic environment deserve more attention.     

城市污水中有关新型微污染物PPCPs归趋研究的进展

药品和个人护理用品 (PPCPs) 是最近十年引起关注的新型有机微量污染物，其引起的环境安全风险受到人们越来越多的关注。一些研究发现，城市污水处理厂出水中存在着一定浓度的PPCPs，城市污水排放是PPCPs进入环境的一条重要途径。从城市污水中PPCPs的分析方法、迁移转化和减量化技术研究等三个方面综述了有关PPCPs在城市污水中归趋的研究进展，介绍了我国城市污水中PPCPs的研究现状；并对在我国进行相关研究提出了建议，以期推动相关研究的开展。     

Application of molecularly imprinted and non-imprinted polymers for removal of emerging contaminants in water and wastewater treatment: a review

Over the past decade, several studies have reported trace levels of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products in surface waters, drinking water, and wastewater effluents. There has also been an increased concern about the ecological and human health impact of these contaminants, and their removal from water and wastewater has become a priority. Traditional treatment processes are limited in their ability to remove emerging contaminants from water, and there is a need for new technologies that are effective and feasible. This paper presents a review on recent research results on molecularly imprinted (MIP) and non-imprinted (NIP) polymers and evaluates their potential as a treatment method for the removal of emerging contaminants from water and wastewater. It also discusses the relative benefits and limitations of using MIP or NIP for water and wastewater treatment. MIP, and in particular NIP, offer promising applications for wastewater treatment, but their toxicity and possible health effects should be carefully studied before they are considered for drinking water treatment. More research is also required to determine how best to incorporate MIP and NIP in treatment plants.     

Behavior of sartans (antihypertensive drugs) in wastewater treatment plants,their occurrence and risk for the aquatic environment

Pharmaceuticals and other anthropogenic trace contaminants reach wastewaters and are often not satisfactorily eliminated in sewage treatment plants. These contaminants and/or their degradation products may reach surface waters, thus influencing aquatic life. In this study, the behavior of five different antihypertonic pharmaceuticals from the sartan group (candesartan, eprosartan, irbesartan, olmesartan and valsartan) is investigated in lab-scale sewage plants. The elimination of the substances with related structures varied broadly from 17 % for olmesartan up to 96 % for valsartan. Monitoring data for these drugs in wastewater effluents of six different sewage treatment plants (STPs) in Bavaria, and at eight rivers, showed median concentrations for, e.g. valsartan of 1.1 and 0.13 μg L^?1, respectively. Predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) were calculated and are mostly consistent with the measured environmental concentrations (MEC). The selected sartans and the mixture of the five sartans showed no ecotoxic effects on aquatic organisms in relevant concentrations. Nevertheless, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environment should be reduced to minimize the risk of their distribution in surface waters, ground waters and bank filtrates used for drinking water.     

The occurrence of antihistamines in sewage waters and in recipient rivers

Background, aim and scope  Each year, large quantities of pharmaceuticals are consumed worldwide for the treatment and prevention of human and animal diseases. Although the drugs and the metabolites observed in the wastewaters and in the environment are present at concentrations several orders of magnitude lower than the concentrations required to exert their effects in humans or animals, their long-term impact on the environment is commonly not known. In this study, the occurrence of six antihistamines, which are used for the relief of allergic reactions such as hay fever, was determined in sewage treatment plants wastewaters and in recipient river waters. Materials and methods  The occurrence of the antihistamines cetirizine, acrivastine, fexofenadine, loratadine, desloratadine and ebastine in sewage treatment plants wastewaters and in recipient river waters was studied. The analytical procedure consisted of solid-phase extraction of the water samples followed by liquid chromatography separation and detection by a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer in the multiple reaction mode. Results  Cetirizine, acrivastine and fexofenadine were detected in both influent and effluent wastewater samples at concentration levels ranging from about 80 to 220 ng/L, while loratadine, desloratadine and ebastine could not be detected in any samples. During sewage treatment, the concentration of the antihistamines dropped by an average of 16–36%. Furthermore, elevated concentrations of antihistamines were observed in samples collected during the season of most intensive plant pollen production, i.e. in May. In the river water samples, the relative pattern of occurrence of cetirizine, acrivastine and fexofenadine was similar to that in the wastewater samples; although the concentration of the compounds was substantially lower (4–11 ng/L). The highest concentrations of the studied drugs were observed near the discharging point of the sewage treatment plant. Discussion  The highest concentrations of antihistamines in STP wastewaters correlate with the outbreak of allergic reaction caused by high amounts of plant pollens in the air. The analysis results of the river water samples show that the antihistamines are carried far away from the effluent discharge points. They may account for a part of the mix of pharmaceuticals and of pharmaceutical metabolites that occur downstream of STPs. Conclusions  Antihistamines are poorly degraded/eliminated under the biological treatment processes applied in the wastewater treatment plants and, consequently, they are continuously being discharged along with other drugs to the aquatic environment. Recommendations and perspectives  As a huge quantity and variety of drugs and their metabolites are continuously discharged to rivers and the sea, the compounds should be considered as contaminants that may possess risks to the aquatic ecosystem. Further studies are urgently needed on the environmental fate of the antihistamines and other pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. These studies should be concerned with the stability of the compounds, their transformation reactions and the identity of the transformation products, the distribution of drugs and their uptake and effects in organisms. On the basis of these studies, the possible environmental hazards of pharmaceuticals may be assessed.     

The potential environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in Vietnamese aquatic systems: case study of antibiotics and synthetic hormones

Presently, many pharmaceuticals are listed as emerging contaminants since they are considered to be great potential threats to environmental ecosystems. These contaminants, thus, present significant research interest due to their extensive use and their physicochemical and toxicological properties. This review discusses a whole range of findings that address various aspects of the usage, occurrence, and potentially environmental risks of pharmaceuticals released from various anthropogenic sources, with emphasis on the aquatic systems in Vietnam. The published information and collected data on the usage and occurrence of antibiotics and synthetic hormone in effluents and aquatic systems of Vietnam is reported. This is followed by a potential ecological risk assessment of these pollutants. The extensive use of antibiotics and synthetic hormones in Vietnam could cause the discharge and accumulation of these contaminants in the aquatic systems and potentially poses serious risks for ecosystems. Vietnam is known to have extensively used antibiotics and synthetic hormones, so these contaminants are inevitably detected in aquatic systems. Thus, an appropriate monitoring program of these contaminants is urgently needed in order to mitigate their negative effects and protect the ecosystems.     

水生生态系统在污水处理中的应用

利用水生生态系统治理水体污染是污水处理领域的研究热点之一.综述了水生生态系统在处理污水中的应用现状,分析了影响处理效果的主要因素,并探讨了水生生态系统处理废水的运行机理,展望了水生生态系统的发展前景.     

水生生态系统在污水处理中的应用

利用水生生态系统治理水体污染是污水处理领域的研究热点之一.综述了水生生态系统在处理污水中的应用现状,分析了影响处理效果的主要因素,并探讨了水生生态系统处理废水的运行机理,展望了水生生态系统的发展前景.     

Comparative environmental assessment of biocides used in antifouling paints

In response to increasing scientific evidence on the toxicity and persistence of organotin residues from antifouling paints in the aquatic environment, the use of triorganotin antifouling products was banned on boats of less than 25 m length in many countries during 1987. Alternatives to tributyltin (TBT) paint are mainly copper based coatings containing organic booster biocides to improve the efficacy of the formulation, and have been utilised on small boats for the last 10 years. With policies encouraging a total ban on TBT, it is expected that these biocides will be used to a greater extent in the future. Limited data and information are available on the environmental occurrence, fate, toxicity, and persistence of these biocides, and thus any decisions on policies regulating antifoulants cannot be fully informed. In this study, a multicriteria comparison of alternative biocides, based on a general assessment of available information in the literature, provided support for the use of the precautionary principle with respect to policies on antifouling products. This assessment was validated by a more detailed comparison of four selected biocides and TBT. Results indicate that TCMS pyridine and TCMTB demonstrate environmental characteristics similar to TBT and thus detail risk assessments are needed before their use is permitted. The widespread use of the other biocides should be allowed only after research to fill the gaps in knowledge with respect to their toxicity and persistence in aquatic environments.     

Wastewater treatment and public health in Nunavut: a microbial risk assessment framework for the Canadian Arctic

Wastewater management in Canadian Arctic communities is influenced by several geographical factors including climate, remoteness, population size, and local food-harvesting practices. Most communities use trucked collection services and basic treatment systems, which are capable of only low-level pathogen removal. These systems are typically reliant solely on natural environmental processes for treatment and make use of existing lagoons, wetlands, and bays. They are operated in a manner such that partially treated wastewater still containing potentially hazardous microorganisms is released into the terrestrial and aquatic environment at random times. Northern communities rely heavily on their local surroundings as a source of food, drinking water, and recreation, thus creating the possibility of human exposure to wastewater effluent. Human exposure to microbial hazards present in municipal wastewater can lead to acute gastrointestinal illness or more severe disease. Although estimating the actual disease burdens associated with wastewater exposures in Arctic communities is challenging, waterborne- and sanitation-related illness is believed to be comparatively higher than in other parts of Canada. This review offers a conceptual framework and evaluation of current knowledge to enable the first microbial risk assessment of exposure scenarios associated with food-harvesting and recreational activities in Arctic communities, where simplified wastewater systems are being operated.     

Benzotriazoles, Alkylphenols and Bisphenol A in Municipal Wastewaters and in the Glatt River, Switzerland

- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2006.01.295 Background Many organic micropollutants occur at trace concentrations in municipal wastewater effluents and in the aquatic environment. Some of these xenobiotic chemicals can be considered as 'emerging' contaminants and some are suspect to have endocrine disrupting effects. Among the latter are nonylphenol (NP), octylphenol (OP) and bisphenol A (BPA), which deserve special attention due to their ubiquitous occurrence in the aquatic environment. The complexing agents benzotriazole (BT) and tolyltriazole (TT) are applied as anticorrosive agents (e.g. in cooling and hydraulic fluids, in antifreezing fluids, in aircraft deicing fluids, in dish washing liquids for silver protection), as antifogging agents and as intermediates for the synthesis of various chemicals. The environmental occurrence of NP and OP is caused by the fact that they are intermediate products (metabolites) in the biodegradation of alkylphenol polyethoxylate surfactants. BPA is globally used for the production of polycarbonate and epoxy resins. Methods BT, TT, NP, OP and BPA were quantitatively determined in municipal wastewater effluents in Switzerland and in the Glatt River. The analytes were enriched by solid-phase enrichment. BT and TT were determined underivatized by electrospray LC/tandem MS. Reversed-phase LC was performed on octylsilica columns with isocratic water/methanol elution. Multiple reaction monitoring of the positive ions provided selective and sensitive detection for reliable quantifications. NP, OP and BPA were determined by GC/MS after derivatization with N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide. Results and Discussion BT and TT concentrations in primary and secondary effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants varied from below 10 to 100 μg/L. The ranges of the concentrations in the Glatt River in ng/L were 636–3,690 for BT, 122–628 for TT, 68–326 for NP, 6–22 for OP and 9–76 for BPA. The corresponding mass flows in g/d were 93–1,870 for BT, 18–360 for TT, 24–183 for NP, 1–16 for OP and 2–72 for BPA. The concentrations and mass flows of NP in the River Glatt were drastically lower than the analogous values found 15 years ago. Thus, a substantially decreased environmental exposure can be observed due to the reduction of the use of alkyphenol polyethoxylate surfactants in Switzerland. The current concentrations of NP, OP and BPA are within the ranges reported for weakly impacted surface waters. Conclusion The investigated contaminants occur at quantitatively measurable but varying concentrations in municipal wastewaters and in the Glatt River reflecting their ubiquitous input into wastewaters and their different behaviour during biological wastewater treatment.     

A review of plant–pharmaceutical interactions: from uptake and effects in crop plants to phytoremediation in constructed wetlands

Pharmaceuticals are commonly found both in the aquatic and the agricultural environments as a consequence of the human activities and associated discharge of wastewater effluents to the environment. The utilization of treated effluent for crop irrigation, along with land application of manure and biosolids, accelerates the introduction of these compounds into arable lands and crops. Despite the low concentrations of pharmaceuticals usually found, the continuous introduction into the environment from different pathways makes them ‘pseudo-persistent’. Several reviews have been published regarding the potential impact of veterinary and human pharmaceuticals on arable land. However, plant uptake as well as phytotoxicity data are scarcely studied. Simultaneously, phytoremediation as a tool for pharmaceutical removal from soils, sediments and water is starting to be researched, with promising results. This review gives an in-depth overview of the phytotoxicity of pharmaceuticals, their uptake and their removal by plants. The aim of the current work was to map the present knowledge concerning pharmaceutical interactions with plants in terms of uptake and the use of plant-based systems for phytoremediation purposes.     

Currently used organophosphate and brominated flame retardants in the environment of China and other developing countries (2000–2016)

This review summarizes the environmental occurrence of new brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) and organophosphate compounds (OPs) in the environment of developing countries since 2000. The ban on the production and use of commercial formulations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have paved the way for the high use of NBFRs and OPs in consumer products to fulfill the fire safety regulations. Recent studies have shown that the ever increasing production volumes and extensive use of these chemicals as additive FRs and plasticizers have resulted into their ubiquitous occurrence in all environmental compartments. Although presumed to be safe for use and the environment, recent studies on their occurrence and persistence in the environment have raised questions. Due to the lack of awareness, research interest, and availability of technical facilities, limited scientific data is available on the occurrence of these chemicals in developing countries. In this study, we collected reported data and provide an overview of environmental occurrence of NBFRs and OPs in abiotic and biotic matrices of different developing countries. Finally, research gaps were identified with recommendations for future research work and would be useful towards the environmental management of these toxic chemicals.