Diversity and connections in community gardens: a contribution to local sustainability

Sustainability requires the integration of social, environmental and economic concerns in international, national and local policy-making. One of the most powerful forces for sustainable development in practice was the Earth Summit of 1992, with its Agenda 21 and Local Agenda 21 (LA21). This latter agenda—the set of policies that aims to create the means to facilitate local sustainability—is particularly important for communities. Community development programmes that also include aspects of sustainable development would seem to embody the spirit of LA21. There are many such diverse schemes and what has emerged is a range of local initiatives that demonstrate parts of the sustainability concept but not a clear picture of sustainable development which covers all of its aspects.

In order to examine this proposition further, an analysis of the community garden movement in the UK was carried out. Community gardens are open spaces managed and operated by members of the local community for a variety of purposes. In the UK many of these are to be found in inner city areas such as in Bradford, Leeds, Bristol and Sandwell. Their growth is marked by their own association—the Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens. The gardens have a variety of purposes: in conjunction with vegetation growing (either as landscape or for consumption), some schemes are experimental permaculture plots, others use organic methods and yet others are concerned with health, education and training issues. All appear to be based in a sense of community, with participation and involvement being particularly strong features.

This sense of community participation and empowerment is what links examples of community gardening. The research reported here collates information gathered from the respondents of a questionnaire and from in-depth interviews, and draws out some of the similarities and themes that community gardens exhibit. From the results, it is suggested that the community garden movement could act as a model for the implementation of social, economic and environmental policies at the local level.     

Evaluation of sustainability by a population living near fossil fuel resources in Northwestern Greece

The emergence of sustainability as a goal in the management of fossil fuel resources is a result of the growing global environmental concern, and highlights some of the issues expected to be significant in coming years. In order to secure social acceptance, the mining industry has to face these challenges by engaging its many different stakeholders and examining their sustainability concerns. For this reason a questionnaire was conducted involving a simple random sampling of inhabitants near an area rich in fossil fuel resources, in order to gather respondents’ views on social, economic and environmental benefits. The study discusses new subnational findings on public attitudes to regional sustainability, based on a quantitative research design. The site of the study was the energy-rich Greek region of Kozani, Western Macedonia, one of the country’s energy hubs. The paper examines the future perspectives of the area. The conclusions can form a useful framework for energy policy in the wider Balkan area, which contains important fossil fuel resources.     

The town that food saved? Investigating the promise of a local food economy in Vermont

Proponents of the local food movement point to its environmental, economic, and social benefits, yet there is little research on the extent to which particular local food projects live up to these promises. Vermont leads the country in farm stands, direct-to-consumer sales, and farmers’ markets per capita and the town of Hardwick, Vermont has received substantial media attention for its growing economy based on new food and agriculture businesses, including being the subject of a book entitled The Town that Food Saved. Using interviews with local food participants and analysis of US Census data, the paper assesses the impact of the local food economy in Hardwick using environmental, economic, and social outcomes. The paper also examines how the agricultural renaissance there has been accepted, resisted, and shaped by local actors. Using Census data, the paper finds that between 2000 and 2016, the unemployment rate in Hardwick remained steady, mean incomes increased, and 296 new jobs have been retained. In addition, the percentage of families in Hardwick with income below the poverty level decreased between 2000 and 2016, and the percentage of families accessing supplemental nutrition assistance program (SNAP) benefits increased. The paper also finds that many participants in the Hardwick food economy have concerns about the accessibility, affordability, and inclusivity of the newer food-based projects there. The paper concludes with a discussion of the ways in which Hardwick fulfils some of the hopes and concerns of the local food movement, and the potential for place-based agricultural development.     

Community-based climate change adaptation: a review of academic literature

The focus on climate change adaptation, rather than mitigation, has become more prominent since the turn of the century. Given this, it is important to consider what has been achieved so far, particularly community-based approaches which have become the resolve for practitioners and donor agencies working in the sector. This review of 128 publications on community-based climate change adaptation, identified through a systematic database search, follows the development of this body of work in the academic literature. Commencing in the early 2000s, the literature detailed the emergence of community-based adaptation (CBA), driven by a number of factors: recognition of the human dimensions of changes; appreciation of the role of local knowledge for strengthening adaptive capacity; and a push to focus on the scale at which impacts are felt and link this action with pro-poor development outcomes. A more substantial body of work emerged in the literature from 2010 onwards, defining a series of key enablers for effective CBA, which included: use participatory approaches; recognise that adaptation is a social process; and support CBA at multiple scales. More recently, there has been a growing emphasis in the literature to re-conceptualise CBA, which will require focusing on innovation, learning and multi-sectoral approaches.     

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN TRANSITION

At a time when future sources of energy are under close scrutiny, both in terms of availability and suitability, geothermal energy ranks among the candidates for inclusion in any appraisal of alternative forms of supply. The use of geothermal energy for the production of electricity and for supplying domestic and industrial heat is a comparatively recent phenomenon, and its application remains closely constrained by favourable geological conditions. Yet exploration in several countries shows that geothermal energy may emerge as an important adjunct to total energy supply in many localities. McNitt outlines some of the economic and technological parameters of this energy source. Small scale geothermal power stations are more economic and less capital intensive than conventional plants, which make them of particular interest for developing countries with small electricity systems and competing demands on limited capital resources. The principal capital expenditures in the development of geothermal sources include exploration, steam production, installation of generating plant and the cost of effluent disposal. The wider use of low grade geothermal heat is also examined, in addition to the environmental problems occurring to the development of geothermal energy. The scope for technical co-operation in the development of geothermal energy is substantial, and it is likely that this source of energy will undergo more intensive development on the local scale in the future.     

The transformation and successful development of small-scale mining enterprises in developing countries

Proponents have long argued that small-scale mining, given proper direction and support, can contribute substantively to the socioeconomic development of rural areas in developing countries. The attitudes of governments, commercial mining companies and donor agencies have been coloured by the haphazard, informal, often dangerous and seemingly wasteful character of much local mining activity, especially at the smallest scale. Yet this 'artisanal' activity has come to assume a critical economic welfare function in many countries, especially those which have suffered through extended periods of environmental and economic stress. This paper argues that this type of mining, because of both its upside potential and its problematic nature, cannot be ignored: neither can it be eradicated. Instead, explicit and sustained attention from governments, non-government organizations, the private sector and donor agencies is advocated for an effort to rationalize and formalize this type of mining, to increase its economic and technical efficiency, and to maximize its social benefits and minimize its disadvantages.     

“One thing leads to another”—Commodities,linkages and industrial development

With a particular focus on low income economies in SSA, this paper addresses the nature and determinants of linkages from the commodities sectors and challenges the received view that enclave development is an inherent characteristic of resource extraction, particularly in the hard and energy commodities sectors. It argues that there has been a steady increase in linkage development and that there are significant opportunities for deepening this process. The opportunities may be greater for backward than for forward linkages, particularly in the minerals and energy sectors. In making this case, this Discussion Paper draws on the experience of high income countries which have resource intensive economic structures, the geographical specificity of many resources and the growing interest of large resource extracting firms in outsourcing the production of inputs which are outside of their core competences and in supporting local production of some inputs, it sets out a general model of linkage development which distinguishes between win–win and win–lose outcomes.     

Monitoring and evaluation in UK low-carbon community groups: benefits,barriers and the politics of the local

In the UK, there now exist hundreds of low-carbon community groups (LCCGs) that aim to decrease collective resource consumption and/or generate renewable energy through diverse social and environmental interventions. These groups have in recent years become the subject of political attention and funding schemes, underpinned by beliefs that LCCGs are key to fostering resilience to climate change and meeting national-level greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. While previous research into LCCGs has focused on drivers, barriers and outcomes of LCCG action, there is now growing policy and academic interest in groups' capacities for, and uses of, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) processes and tools. However, little is known about the experiences, opportunities and potential challenges for LCCGs undertaking M&E. In response, this paper draws on a Knowledge Exchange project that explored M&E processes and tools with a sample of UK LCCGs. It outlines the benefits and drawbacks of groups' attempts to achieve change and to account for their outcomes and/or impacts, individually, and as part of a wider movement. It argues that, while M&E could be one way for groups to “scale up” their impact without losing their grounding in place and community, issues of capacity, resources and utility remain paramount.     

Fishing and farming at Lake Chad: institutions for access to natural resources.

Lake Chad is a vitally important wetland in the semi-arid Sahel corridor. It provides the basis of many thousands of livelihoods which depend on its seasonal fluctuations to renew fish stocks, farmland and rangeland. This paper describes how access to farmland and fishing rights has evolved on the Nigerian shore of the lake. The paper aims to assess the applicability of different institutional approaches to natural resource management on the lake shore. Although many recent approaches to natural resource management have reflected a 'Tragedy of the Commons' approach, a growing literature both in support and critical of Hardin's (1968) thesis has followed. Four distinct approaches are considered: (1) institutional intervention to prevent 'tragedy'; (2) institution erosion brought about by such interventions; (3) models of institutional adaptation to resource scarcity; and (4) approaches which perceive institutions as a crucial determinant of social and economic development. In examining which institutional approaches may be relevant at Lake Chad, it is anticipated that this paper will provide insights which will be relevant to policy-makers, resource managers and students working in environments where resource fluctuation inhibits stable property rights and state resource management has proved neither feasible nor successful. The western shore of Lake Chad has been under the jurisdiction of Borno State in its various guises since the end of the fourteenth century and is currently one of 36 states in the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Although the administrative status of Borno itself has varied, it has been dominated by a Kanuri aristocracy for most of its existence. The Kanuri administration has continued to operate in a remarkably similar way over the past 150 years. Traditionally, it has played a crucial role in allocating access to farm land. In recent years, the 'Kanuri administration' has not only maintained its pre-colonial authority over farming on the lake shore, but has expanded it to cover new areas of the lake floor and the increasingly lucrative fishing opportunities which federal government has been unable to regulate. This success suggests that collaboration with the organisations which operate such institutions could be beneficial, if not essential, to the success of natural resource management.     

Acid rain in Asia

Acid rain has been an issue of great concern in North America and Europe during the past several decades. However, due to the passage of a number of recent regulations, most notably the Clean Air Act in the United States in 1990, there is an emerging perception that the problem in these Western nations is nearing solution. The situation in the developing world, particularly in Asia, is much bleaker. Given the policies of many Asian nations to achieve levels of development comparable with the industrialized world—which necessitate a significant expansion of energy consumption (most derived from indigenous coal reserves)—the potential for the formation of, and damage from, acid deposition in these developing countries is very high. This article delineates and assesses the emissions patterns, meteorology, physical geology, and biological and cultural resources present in various Asian nations. Based on this analysis and the risk factors to acidification, it is concluded that a number of areas in Asia are currently vulnerable to acid rain. These regions include Japan, North and South Korea, southern China, and the mountainous portions of Southeast Asia and southwestern India. Furthermore, with accelerated development (and its attendant increase in energy use and production of emissions of acid deposition precursors) in many nations of Asia, it is likely that other regions will also be affected by acidification in the near future. Based on the results of this overview, it is clear that acid deposition has significant potential to impact the Asian region. However, empirical evidence is urgently needed to confirm this and to provide early warning of increases in the magnitude and spread of acid deposition and its effects throughout this part of the world.     

Seeding agroecology through new farmer training in Canada: knowledge,practice, and relational identities

As a concept, agroecology emphasises the interweaving of scientific and traditional ecological knowledge and is evolving in conjunction with farmer-led social movements from around the world addressing the health, equity and ecological sustainability of food systems. In Canada, many new agroecological farmers come from non-farming backgrounds and are finding limited training opportunities and support structures. While there is a growing literature on the evolution of agroecology, there is limited research on the existence and impact of training programmes on the subject-formation of new farmers. In this paper, we consider the subject-formation of new agroecological farmers through a case study of the Everdale Community Learning Centre, one of Canada’s only agroecological farm schools. In particular, we explore how the knowledge, practice, and relational identities of participating graduates are informed by and build on the science, practice, and movement of agroecology. Drawing on a survey and interviews with past participants, we found that Everdale’s education programme contributes to an agroecological subject-formation by promoting the co-creation of place-based agricultural knowledge; teaching the complexities of agroecology practice through both experiential and theoretical training; and, building a supportive community of peers. We conclude with reflections on ways to encourage a greater diversity of new farmer entrants and opportunities to support training programme graduates in establishing successful farms. These findings provide insight into developing new agroecological farmers and supporting the growing agroecological movement in Canada.     

The problem of scale in community resource management

Scale is a fundamental variable in most community resource management programs. This is true both in terms of scale as a management concept (i.e., local, regional, and national level management) as well as a mapping concept (i.e., units on the map per unit on the ground). Julian Steward, the father of human ecology, recognized as early as 1950 that social scientists have failed to develop methods for incorporating the effect of scale in their work. This article seeks to determine whether methods used in plant and animal ecology for assessing the effects of scale are applicable to community resource management. The article reviews hierarchy theory and multiple scales, two methods (one theoretical and the other practical) for dealing with problems that span many scales. The application of these methods to community resource management programs is examined by way of an example.     

瑞典的生态税收及对我国的借鉴

瑞典的生态税收规模较大,种类较多,并具有特色,主要是对能源及其他与环境有关的税基的征税。近年我国能源的消耗量逐渐增大,以及废旧电池等对环境污染较大,应该借鉴瑞典的经验,开征独立的环境保护税,并配合其他措施,将取得的税收用于环境的保护。     

UK allotments and urban food initiatives: (limited?) potential for reducing inequalities

The number of urban food initiatives in many regions of the world, notably Europe and the USA, has burgeoned in recent years, and analyses of the impacts of these activities on people and environments are the focus of an increasing academic literature. The impacts documented include enhanced food security, cohesive neighbourhoods, sustainability, and food justice. Yet, another literature presents opposing analyses and focuses on exclusionary aspects of projects and their enabling of a continued neo-liberal reduction in state welfare provision. As a result, there has been an impasse in debates over the potential of urban food projects to reduce inequalities. This paper proposes that the benchmark of the UK allotment system provides a means to examine these opposing positions. It uses the conceptual frameworks of diverse economies and the capital assets framework to attain clarity in the analysis of the many kinds of food-related activities seen in (peri-)urban areas. Drawing on empirical work in Plymouth, UK, it focuses on the potential of the different food ventures to reduce inequalities, given certain contingent economic and political factors. It also presents evidence that the allotment movement despite its initially radical roots can be seen as largely apolitical in the present day and has no leverage over allocation of land to allotment sites. Even so, evidence is growing that both allotments and the newer forms of urban food activities contribute to meeting national and city-level policy objectives, with the potential to enhance food justice and reduce inequalities.     

Status,stigma and energy practices in the home

Domestic energy practices are a topical policy issue, with implications for climate change, energy security and fuel poverty. Accordingly, a growing body of literature examines ways of promoting energy conservation and generation by individuals. However, there has been relatively little discussion of how status and stigma are implicated in these practices, and may act as facilitators or barriers to “behaviour change”. To help address this gap, this article draws both on existing literature and a new UK-based study of people who are attempting to live sustainable lives, to provide insights into how domestic energy practices may be status-enhancing or stigmatising, and how these risks and opportunities can be managed. While energy practices are often understood as “inconspicuous”, it is argued here that in some circumstances individuals may actively manage the visibility of their energy practices. The discussion considers these findings with regard to social power relations, and identifies issues warranting further exploration within the emerging research agenda on energy and equity.     

Spaghetti soup: The complex world of food waste behaviours

There is growing awareness of the positive impact of reducing the amount of wasted food on greenhouse gas emissions, energy use, food and water security, and land use. In developed nations, food waste generated in homes is a large contributor to the total amount of food waste. The behaviours and practices associated with this waste prevention (and waste generation) are complex for a number of reasons: food waste is the result of multiple, interacting activities and this leads to separation between the activity and their consequences. These behaviours are usually performed for reasons unrelated to waste prevention and have both a marked habitual element and a pronounced emotional component. Furthermore, the prevention of food waste has less ‘visibility’ to other people (e.g. neighbours) than many other pro-environmental behaviours (e.g. recycling), and therefore social norms around ‘waste’ play a reduced role compared to more ‘visible’ activities.This paper discusses insights into these behaviours from research funded by the Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP) and its partners in the UK. It discusses how these insights have been used in the development of a successful public-engagement campaign, which has been influential in the recent reduction in household food waste. These insights are also discussed in light of commonly used behavioural models, highlighting that many of these models are not designed for multiple, complex behaviours. However, considering the subject of food waste through the ‘lenses’ of different academic disciplines has helped the development of the public engagement on this issue.     

Ecoregions and ecoregionalization: geographical and ecological perspectives

Ecoregions, i.e., areas exhibiting relative homogeneity of ecosystems, are units of analysis that are increasingly important in environmental assessment and management. Ecoregions provide a holistic framework for flexible, comparative analysis of complex environmental problems. Ecoregions mapping has intellectual foundations in both geography and ecology. However, a hallmark of ecoregions mapping is that it is a truly interdisciplinary endeavor that demands the integration of knowledge from a multitude of sciences. Geographers emphasize the role of place, scale, and both natural and social elements when delineating and characterizing regions. Ecologists tend to focus on environmental processes with special attention given to energy flows and nutrient cycling. Integration of disparate knowledge from the many key sciences has been one of the great challenges of ecoregions mapping, and may lie at the heart of the lack of consensus on the "optimal" approach and methods to use in such work. Through a review of the principal existing US ecoregion maps, issues that should be addressed in order to advance the state of the art are identified. Research related to needs, methods, data sources, data delivery, and validation is needed. It is also important that the academic system foster education so that there is an infusion of new expertise in ecoregion mapping and use.     

From social ‘acceptance’ to social ‘acceptability’ of wind energy projects: towards a territorial perspective

Social acceptance is central in many debates surrounding energy projects. Wind energy, in particular, has been described as a ‘learning laboratory’ in terms of social acceptance of energy projects. It has given way to a socio-technical paradox: the social dimension has become a factor of equal importance to technology in the wind farms implementation. Based on a literature review concerned with the social acceptance of wind energy, the paper seeks to demonstrate both the richness and the limits of the key concepts that inform the ongoing work of scholars. By doing so, we intend to emphasise the complex processes underneath in order to then elaborate a conceptual definition of social acceptability. Various modulations and limits that characterise current thinking are thus underlined. We then propose a grid analysis relying on a territorial perspective. It is structured around three levels that connect micro-social, meso-political and macro-economic processes.     

Tamarisk and river-channel management

Tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis, Lour.) an artificially introduced tree, has become a most common species in many riparian vegetation communities along the rivers of the western United States. On the Salt and Gila rivers of central Arizona, the plant first appeared in the early 1890s, and by 1940 it grew in dense thickets that posed serious flood-control problems by substantially reducing the capacities of major channels. Since 1940 its distribution and density in central Arizona have fluctuated in response to combined natural processes and human management. Groundwater levels, channel waters, floods, irrigation return waters, sewage effluent, and sedimentation behind retention and diversion works are major control mechanisms on the growth of tamarisk; on a regional scale of analysis, groundwater levels are the most significant under present conditions.     

Corporate social responsibility in the mining industry: Perspectives from stakeholder groups in Argentina

Since the liberalisation of its investment regime in the 1990s, Argentina has seen a rise in foreign direct investment into large-scale exploration and exploitation of mineral resources. However, many social groups (local communities, grassroots movement and the church) often strongly oppose new mining projects on the grounds of environmental, ethical and economic concerns. In a situation marked by widespread conflict, mining companies continue operating and develop Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) initiatives which are often promoted as a means of contributing to the sustainability and development of the nation. The paper develops a framework to highlight how the principles of stakeholder theory could be used as conceptual and practical guidance for conflict-resolution oriented CSR policies. The framework is further used to analyse two case studies of conflictive mining projects in Argentina. The paper explores how key stakeholders perceive contribution of CSR to welfare and the socio-economic development of mining communities and sustainable development of the nation. It demonstrates that institutional and social stakeholder networks often strongly oppose the idea of voluntary self-regulation implied by CSR in situations characterised by weak governance. Even though the CSR of companies could be improved in areas of corporate communication, transparency, stakeholder engagement and dialogue, it is not seen as a panacea for the social conflicts in the sector.