乙酸钙不动杆菌对富营养化景观水体的净化作用

利用乙酸钙不动杆菌(Acinetobacter calcoaceticus),在室内采用投菌法对富营养化景观水体进行预处理试验研究.通过不同的投菌量ф=0.05×10-3、0.1×10-3、0.2×10-3,对水体进行处理,结果表明,乙酸钙不动杆菌对富营养化水体中的总氮(TN)、总磷(TP)、CODcr,均有一定的去除效果,其中在投菌量为O.1×10-3时处理效果最好.通过进一步的连续投菌净化试验,水体中的TN、TP、CODcr显著降低,处理后,水体中叶绿素a的质量浓度为19.1 mg·m-3,去除率为83.7%,藻类基本得到控制.由此可见,乙酸钙不动杆菌能够有效性地去除水体中的有机物、氮、磷,因此具有净化富营养化水体的作用.     

富营养化水体中菹草光合荧光特性研究

用NH4Cl、NaNO3、KH2PO4配置不同氮磷浓度的试验水,将菹草(Potamogeton cripus)分别移栽于上述水体中,观测菹草在各水体中的生长发育状况,并用水下饱和脉冲叶绿素荧光仪(Diving-PAM)测定菹草光合作用PSII有效荧光产量(Y)、光化学荧光淬灭系数(qP)、非光化学荧光淬灭系数(qN)等指标。结果表明:在TN<2mg·L-1,TP<0.4mg·L-1,Chla<118mg·m-3试验水体中,菹草长势良好,株高增加了51.2%、46.6%,叶片数增大了57.7%、58.1%;在营养盐质量浓度很高(TN8mg·L-1,TP0.8mg·L-1)、藻类生物量极高(Chla421mg·m-3)的水体中,菹草的生长受到抑制,并出现死亡。Y、qP、qN的值说明了在TN<2mg·L-1,TP<0.4mg·L-1,Chla<118mg·m-3水体中,菹草叶片吸收的光能更多的参与光化学反应,光合作用增大。高营养盐质量浓度(TN8mg·L-1,TP0.8mg·L-1,Chla421mg·m-3)水体中的菹草叶片将大部分光能用于热耗散,光合作用降低。快速光响应曲线同时也说明各水体中,菹草的最小饱和光强(Ek)都为176μmol·m-2s-1,但高营养盐质量浓度(TN8mg·L-1,TP0.8mg·L-1,Chla421mg·m-3)水体中的菹草叶片的最大光电子传递速率(rETR-max)明显低于其他水体,随着水体中营养盐浓度的升高,菹草耐光抑制能力显著降低。     

羧甲基纤维素钠基复合调湿材料的制备与性能

调湿剂能依靠自身的吸放湿性能改变空气里的湿度.采用羧甲基纤维素钠(CMC)为基质,从调湿性能筛选出氯化镁和氯化钙两种中性无机盐,采用单因素法确定基质和无机盐的最佳配比为m(基质):m(无机盐)=1:1,挤条烘干得调湿剂A和B.调湿剂A和B在高湿度(70%RH)下有良好的吸湿性能.吸湿量分别达到33%和67%,高于普遍采用的干燥剂硅胶,5 h基本达到放湿平衡.在调湿剂的外面包裹金属氧化物二氧化锰得复合剂,实验结果表明对于微最的甲醛具有一定的吸附效果,在72 h内将初始质量浓度为1 000 μg·m-3的甲醛降到216μg·m-3.且实验表明复合剂仍有较高的吸湿量.     

天津城区环境空气VOCs浓度及恶臭污染感官分析

为研究天津市环境空气VOCs浓度水平及恶臭感官污染特征,采用网格布点法在天津中心城区布点26个,分别对春、夏、秋、冬四季进行了系统采样.分析结果显示,天津市不同季节VOCs主要物质组成存在一定差异,城市空气由于受各种污染源的影响,臭气浓度普遍超出相关标准.VOCs总浓度季节变化特征为:春季(0.276 mg·m-3)秋季(0.275 mg·m-3)冬季(0.236 mg·m-3)夏季(0.179 mg·m-3).浓度统计结果表明,VOCs总体浓度范围主要集中在0—0.30 mg·m-3浓度区间,在此区间4个季节的样品百分比均在70%以上.臭气浓度统计结果表明,臭气浓度小于20(无量纲)的样品比例仅为36.19%.与一类区厂界标准相比,春季仅2.56%的样品臭气浓度低于10,夏季臭气浓度小于10的样品比例最高,为45.45%,冬季也较高,为35.90%,秋季为13.51%.与二类区厂界标准相比,春季仅10.26%达标,夏季63.64%达标,秋季16.22%达标,冬季71.80%达标.     

典型根系分泌物成分对人工湿地去除雌激素的影响

人工湿地是一种简单、经济的生态型水处理技术,有研究表明利用人工湿地去除类固醇雌激素(SEs)具有一定的效果。天然雌激素雌酮(E1)和人工合成雌激素17-α乙炔基雌二醇(EE2)是环境中典型的类固醇雌激素,目前对人工湿地去除SEs的研究多集中在去除效率方面,机理研究缺乏。文章研究了不同浓度的典型根系分泌物成分草酸和咖啡酸对人工湿地去除模拟污水中E1和EE2的影响。结果表明:在进水流量为139μL·min-1,水力停留时间为5 d情况下,随着根系分泌物质量浓度的增加,9种不同类型的潜流湿地对E1平均去除率分别为34.3%(50 mg·L-1)、41.5%(100 mg·L-1)、55.8%(200 mg·L-1),对E2平均去除率分别为21.3%(50 mg·L-1)、29.6%(100 mg·L-1)、42.9%(200 mg·L-1),说明在一定范围内(50~200 mg·L-1),根系分泌物质量浓度的增加能促进人工湿地对E1、EE2的去除。利用荧光原位杂交(FISH)法分析湿地植物根区微生物数量。草酸、咖啡酸质量浓度各为50、100、200 mg·L-1时,细菌数量分别为6.0×106、7.2×106、11.2×106个·g-1。结果表明:根系分泌物质量浓度越高,湿地细菌数量越多,E1的生物降解作用越强。分析根系分泌物去除率与SEs去除率的关系发现:随着草酸、咖啡酸添加量的增加,其去除率逐渐降低,E1去除率增高。总之,根系分泌物共代谢可以增强人工湿地中SEs的降解作用。     

不同水力负荷下凤眼莲去除氮、磷效果比较

采用人工模拟方法,研究了不同水力负荷(0.14、0.20、0.33和1.00m3.m-2.d-1)对凤眼莲去除富营养化水体氮、磷效果的影响,试验期间进水TN、NH4+-N、NO3-N、TP平均质量浓度分别为4.85、1.33、2.92和0.50mg.L-1。结果表明,凤眼莲净化系统对富营养化水体具有较好的去除效果,低水力负荷(0.14、0.20m3.m-2.d-1)下,出水TN、NH4+-N和TP均达到了GB3838—2002《地表水环境质量标准》的Ⅳ类水质标准;当水力负荷提高到1.00m3.m-2.d-1后,出水TN、NH4+-N、NO3-N和TP质量浓度明显上升。4种水力负荷下,凤眼莲净化系统对TN和TP去除率分别为84.95%和80.65%、73.87%和73.04%、51.60%和64.05%、30.77%和47.79%,即随水力负荷的提高而降低;相应的TN、TP去除负荷分别为0.58和0.06、0.72和0.07、0.83和0.11、1.47和0.23g.m-2.d-1,即随水力负荷的提高而增加。综合考虑净化效果和污水处理能力,本试验条件下凤眼莲系统的水力负荷宜控制在0.33m3.m-2.d-1。     

兰州地区苯并(a)芘的环境多介质迁移和归趋模拟

利用Level Ⅲ逸度模型模拟计算了稳态假设下苯并(a)芘在兰州地区大气、水体、土壤和沉积物中的相间迁移通量、浓度分布.结果表明:大气的平流输入和化石燃料燃烧是该区域苯并(a)芘的主要来源,土壤是其最大的储库,占总残留量的99.6%;在大气、水体、土壤和沉积物中的浓度分别为1.61×10-10 mol·m-3、9.39×10-7 mol·m-3、7.13×10-4 mol·m-3和9.17×10-5mol·m-3,模型计算浓度与同期实测浓度吻合较好,验证了模型的可靠性,并通过灵敏度分析,确定了模型的关键参数.     

天津城区PM_(2.5)中碳组分污染特征分析

为探讨天津城区碳组分的季节污染特征,于2009年4月—2010年1月采集大气PM2.5样品,测定其碳组分浓度,分析有机碳(OC)和元素碳(EC)的相互关系,并探讨气象条件对碳组分浓度的影响.结果表明,天津城区PM2.5质量浓度为141.47μg·m-3,OC和EC质量浓度年均值分别为18.81μg·m-3和6.86μg·m-3,分别占PM2.5质量浓度的13.3%和4.8%,碳组分系PM2.5的重要组成部分;季节分布特征显示,秋、冬季OC和EC污染较为严重,总碳气溶胶(TCA)分别为45.74μg·m-3和46.75μg·m-3,占PM2.5质量浓度的30.1%和40.1%;采用改进的OC/EC最小比值法计算得到的二次有机碳(SOC)浓度显示,秋季和冬季SOC较高,为7.45μg·m-3和7.28μg·m-3.后向轨迹的聚类分析表明,局地气流或偏南气流控制下的PM2.5中碳组分浓度较高.     

表流湿地不同植物配置对富营养化循环水体的净化效果

通过构建不同植物配置的表流湿地,研究了表流湿地不同植物配置对富营养化循环水体的净化效果。结果表明,在水力负荷为1.46 m.d-1、平均水力停留时间为24 h条件下,表流湿地整体对TP、TN、CODCr及TSS的单位面积去除速率分别为13.26、57.766、2.44、70.72 mg.m-2.d-1;凤眼莲(Eichhornia crassipes)对TP、TN的单位面积去除速率最高,分别为12.82和62.95 mg.m-2.d-1,荇菜(Nymphoides peltatum)和水芹(Oenanthe javanica)最低,不同植物配置条件下水体进、出水中TP、TN浓度呈指数相关;供试植物对CODCr的单位面积去除速率随时间延长呈整体下降趋势,荇菜对CODCr的单位面积去除速率最高(P<0.05),为67.14 mg.m-2.d-1,菖蒲(Acoruscalamus)最低(45.43 mg.m-2.d-1);大薸(Pistia stratiotes)和黑三棱(Sparganium stoloniferum)对TSS的单位面积去除速率最低(P<0.05),且不同时间变化幅度较小(22.96～33.95 ...     

叶菌唑对斑马鱼的急性毒性及生物富集效应

为评价杀菌剂叶菌唑对水生生态系统的影响,以斑马鱼(Brachydanio rerio)为试验生物,采用半静态法研究了叶菌唑原药对斑马鱼的急性毒性以及生物富集效应。结果表明,95%叶菌唑原药对斑马鱼96 h的半数致死浓度(96 h-LC_(50))为3.89 mg·L~(-1),选用在3.90×10~(-1)和3. 90×10~(-2)mg·L~(-1)这2个处理浓度下连续暴露8 d,在3. 90×10~(-1)mg·L~(-1)浓度下生物富集系数(BCF)为53.3;在3.90×10~(-2)mg·L~(-1)浓度暴露下生物富集系数(BCF8d)为26.2。根据《化学农药环境安全评价试验准则》毒性划分标准,叶菌唑原药属于中等富集性农药。研究结果为叶菌唑田间安全使用提供理论依据。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.