Organic farmers in islands: Agricultural management and attitude towards the environment

SUMMARY

This study explores differences among organic farmers who live in islands and have isolated small-size operations. The relationships between farmers' characteristics and attitudes and farm management were interpreted by studying how they manage their land, their attitudes towards the environment and alternative farming systems, and their involvement in organic farming. The research was carried out using questionnaires addressed to organic farmers on the island of Thassos. Nonlinear canonical correlation was applied for data analysis. This information could contribute to adjustment of policy decisions for on-farm diversification. Agricultural policy makers should approach organic farmers in northern Thassos (productive irrigated olive orchards with gentle slopes) by enacting standards to reduce the cost of alternative plant protection methods and promoting their products in order to maintain and expand organic farming. They should also approach organic farmers in southern Thassos (less productive, dry cultivated olive orchards with steep slopes, overgrazed and often abandoned) by providing them with the necessary information and appropriate agricultural know-how to effectively manage their farms. Organic farmers with stable off-farm income are more aware of environmental values and consider that they risk less than others in order to gain the benefits of alternative farming systems. However, they should attend training programmes to achieve economic success to allow them to continue farming organically.     

The ecological dynamics of low external input agriculture: A case study of hill farming in a developing country

This paper on Low External Input Agriculture (LEIA) has explored how indigenous hill farming systems in a developing country setting of rural Nepal are functioning and which ecological properties of such systems could contribute to the development of Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA). Three cases were studied using direct field observation, group discussion and interviews, and the important practices of LEIA were ranked into eight classes to analyse the ecological sustainability of the hill farming systems. The study shows that the hill farming system is complex, diverse, heavily reliant on local resources and focuses on the renewability of production resources within the farm. All this can greatly contribute to make the system ecologically sustainable. However, demands for increased production put considerable pressure on farmers to apply external inputs which, if in excess, may jeopardise the whole system. A prerequisite for guidance in careful soil management is the strengthening of supportive research aimed at teaching farmers how to use external inputs. This must agree with the principles of sustainable agriculture and take into account the site-specific variations which are characteristic of Nepalese hill farming systems. We defined the term Ecological Dynamics as 'the pattern of changes in structure and/or forces in processes which govern the development of natural and artificial ecosystems'. This definition assists in identification of trends in ecological sustainability. Understanding indigenous farming systems reveals important ecological clues essential for the development of sustainable agriculture.     

Enhancing the productivity and multifunctionality of traditional farming in Latin America

SUMMARY

An assessment is made of various grassroots development initiatives in Latin America which show that agroecological technologies can bring significant environmental and economic benefits to small farmers and rural communities in the region. Examined initiatives offer new ways of enhancing the multifunctional attributes of traditional agriculture through greater per unit area productivity and environmental services obtained in complex, integrated agroecological systems that feature many crop varieties, together with animals and trees. If such experiences were to be scaled up, multiplied, extrapolated, and supported in alternative policy scenarios, the gains in food security and environmental conservation would be substantial. The challenge now is to mobilize science, institutions and the right policies to increase the productivity of smallholder farming systems, while preserving the resource base and at the same time empowering local communities.     

Fostering food and energy security through by-product valorization within agricultural and agro-industrial networks: study of the province of Santiago de Cuba

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to investigate of how the concept of ‘integrated food and energy systems’ or IFES production networks could be applied – within the specific context of Eastern Cuba’s agricultural and agro-industrial sectors – as an innovative approach to improve food and energy security. The Province of Santiago de Cuba in southeast Cuba was the focus of this study; its existing operations, infrastructure, resource flows and scarcities, and actor relationships provide the basis of the data used for the evaluation.

The authors investigated the regional context, identify potential members of an agricultural and agro-industrial network in three municipalities of the province, and identify the main residuals and by-products of key facilities. Potential avenues for by-product valorization are investigated along with the possible influence/impacts on the sustainability of the surrounding systems and actors. A conceptual model for a regional network for integrated food and energy production is then provided based upon the development of three agricultural/agro-industrial scenarios: influence at the farm level, regional agro-industrial networks, and ‘anchor tenant’ eco-industrial systems. The main challenges and opportunities for the development of the networks are described with recommendations for addressing such where possible.     

Sea-Cage Aquaculture, Sea Lice, and Declines of Wild Fish

Abstract: A sea cage, sometimes referred to as a net pen, is an enclosure designed to prevent farm fish from escaping and to protect them from large predators, while allowing a free flow of water through the cage to carry away waste. Farm fish thus share water with wild fish, which enables transmission of parasites, such as sea lice, from wild to farm and farm to wild fishes. Sea lice epidemics, together with recently documented population‐level declines of wild salmon in areas of sea‐cage farming, are a reminder that sea‐cage aquaculture is fundamentally different from terrestrial animal culture. The difference is that sea cages protect farm fish from the usual pathogen‐control mechanisms of nature, such as predators, but not from the pathogens themselves. A sea cage thus becomes an unintended pathogen factory. Basic physical theory explains why sea‐cage aquaculture causes sea lice on sympatric wild fish to increase and why increased lice burdens cause wild fish to decline, with extirpation as a real possibility. Theory is important to this issue because slow declines of wild fish can be difficult to detect amid large fluctuations from other causes. The important theoretical concepts are equilibrium, host‐density effect, reservoir‐host effect, and critical stocking level of farmed fish (stocking level at which lice proliferate on farm fish even if wild fish are not present to infect them). I explored these concepts and their implications without mathematics through examples from salmon farming. I also considered whether the lice‐control techniques used by sea‐cage farmers (medication and shortened grow‐out times) are capable of protecting wild fish. Elementary probability showed that (where W is the abundance of wild fish, W* is the prefarm abundance, F is the abundance of farm fish, and is the ratio of lice per farm fish to lice per wild fish). Declines of wild fish can be reduced by short growing cycles for farm fish, medicating farm fish, and keeping farm stocking levels low. Declines can be avoided only by ensuring that wild fish do not share water with farmed fish, either by locating sea cages very far from wild fish or through the use of closed‐containment aquaculture systems. These principles are likely to govern any aquaculture system where cage‐protected farm hosts and sympatric wild hosts have a common parasite with a direct life cycle.     

A box model of carrying capacity for suspended mussel aquaculture in Lagune de la Grande-Entrée,Iles-de-la-Madeleine,Québec

An object-oriented model of environment–mussel aquaculture interactions and mussel carrying-capacity within Lagune de la Grande-Entrée (GEL), Iles-de-la-Madeleine, Québec, was constructed to assist in development of sustainable mussel culture in this region. A multiple box ecosystem model for GEL tied to the output of a hydrodynamic model was constructed using Simile software, which has inherent ability to represent spatial elements and specify water exchange between modelled regions. Mussel growth and other field data were used for model validation. Plackett–Burman sensitivity analysis demonstrated that a variety of bioenergetic parameters of zooplankton and phytoplankton submodels were important in model outcomes. Model results demonstrated that mussel aquaculture can be further developed throughout the lagoon. At present culture densities, phytoplankton depletion is minimal, and there is little food limitation of mussel growth. Results indicated that increased stocking density of mussels in the existing farm will lead to decreased mass per individual mussel. Depending on the location of new farm emplacement within the lagoon, implementation of new aquaculture sites either reduced mussel growth in the existing farm due to depletion of phytoplankton, or exhibited minimum negative impact on the existing farm. With development throughout GEL, an excess of phytoplankton was observed during the year in all modelled regions, even at stocking densities as high as 20 mussels m⁻³. Although mussels cultured at this density do not substantially impact the ecosystem, their growth is controlled by the flux of phytoplankton food and abundance of zooplankton competitors. This model provides an effective tool to examine expansion of shellfish farming to new areas, balancing culture location and density.     

Environmental change and normalization of cash crop systems in Africa: preventing agrarian change in West Africa cocoa

ABSTRACT

In recent years, environmental and demographic crises have often been associated with increasing hunger and poverty in agrarian societies. The potential of such crisis to play a positive role in the evolution of agriculture and agricultural societies has been overlooked. Environmental crises such as deforestation for example (in a production where forestland is a production factor) are points of resource alteration that require corresponding alterations in farming systems. Normalization occurs when farmers are induced to defy such signals indicating the need to diversify and instead choose to continue along their existing path regardless of the changing resource endowment. In the absence is replacement of the vital production factor such continuity has to be paid for.     

Integrated modelling of the ecosystem of the Niger river inland delta in Mali

The Niger River inland delta in Mali constitutes a vast 36,000 km² area of wetlands, producing numerous natural resources, exploited by fishermen, pastoralists and farmers. It is also a humid zone protected through the Ramsar convention of 1971. To promote the management of its natural resources, an integrated model has been developed in order to simulate the evolution of this ecosystem in relation to different scenarios of population increase, diminishing natural flooding (climatic droughts, construction of dams), increasing stress on land tenure and access to farming areas, technological advances, current administrative decentralisation policy. Possible applications of the model are illustrated through an analysis of the impact of the construction of dams on the traditional farming systems of the delta (fishing, rice cropping, pastoralism), and through a sensitivity analysis of an evolution in the fishing techniques on the revenues of fishermen. The validity of the results of the modelling is discussed and its use for other studies in the field of integrated natural resources management analysed.     

Effects of mussel aquaculture on the nitrogen cycle and benthic communities in Kenepuru Sound,Marlborough Sounds,New Zealand

Nitrogen pools and transformations and benthic communities at a Perna canaliculus farm and a nearby reference site without direct influence of marine farming in Kenepuru Sound, New Zealand, were compared on four dates between September 1982 and May 1983. The organic nitrogen pool in the top 12 cm sediment was 7.4 to 10.8 mol m^-2 at the mussel farm and 6.1 to 8.9 mol m^-2 at the reference site. The nitrate and nitrite pools were similar in both sediments, but the ammonium pool in the mussel farm sediment was about twice as high as in the reference sediment. In January, the sediment ammonium concentrations ranged from 418 nmol cm^-3 (surface) to 149 nmol cm^-3 (12 cm depth) at the mussel farm and from 86 to 112 nmol cm^-3 at the reference site. The molar C:N ratio of the sediment organic matter was 6.2 to 7.2 at the mussel farm and 7.9 to 10.0 at the reference site. The molar N:P ratio of the sediment organic matter was 4.3 to 7.2 and 3.3 to 6.1 at mussel farm and reference site, respectively. The total nitrogen mineralisation rate in the top 12 cm sediment ranged from 21.7 to 37.1 mmol m^-2 d^-1 at the mussel farm and from 8.5 to 25.0 mmol m^-2 d^-1 at the reference site. Ammonium excretion by mussels was about 4.7% (January) and 7.4% (May) of the combined nitrogen mineralisation by mussels and sediment. The sediment-denitrification rate was 0.7 to 6.1 mmol m^-2 d^-1 at the mussel farm and 0.1 to 0.9 mmol m^-2 d^-1 at the reference site. In January, 76 and 93% of the nitrate reduced in the sediments were denitrified at the mussel farm and reference site, respectively. The denitrification rate on the mussel lines (determined on detritus-covered mussels) was twice the mussel farm sediment-denitrification rate and 10 times the reference sediment-denitrification rate. Total denitrification at the mussel farm was 21% higher than at the reference site. The loss of nitrogen through mussel harvest and denitrification was 68% higher at the mussel farm. The surface layers of both sediments contained about 75 mg m^-2 chlorophyll a. Sediment phaeophytin levels were 52 mg m^-2 at the reference site and 137 mg m^-2 at the mussel farm. While the benthic infauna of the mussel-farm sediment consisted only of polychaete worms, the reference sediment contained also bivalve molluscs, brittle stars and crustaceans.     

Multicriteria analysis applied to the sustainable agriculture problem

SUMMARY

The aim of this paper is to present an operational approach to compare the relative sustainability of existing farming systems. Sustainability rests on the assumption that an equilibrium must exist among three domains: social, economic and ecological. If we are to look for a solution to the problem, we must face a multi-dimensional approach. We propose that multicriteria analysis, a multi-dimensional method, is an appropriate methodology to study the issue. As sustainability cannot be measured directly, the way out is to use indicators. We have performed a thorough analysis of four farming systems existing in Guaíra, SP, Brazil to validate the methodology. Thirty indicators of sustainability (ten ecological, ten social, and ten economic) were defined and used to perform the analysis. The results of the multicriteria analysis proved useful because of its capability of reducing the dimensionality of the problem. From the three dimensions of sustainability, a final score was derived that can easily compare the relative sustainability of each farming system.     

Livestock carrying capacity evaluation in an integrated farming system: A case study from the mid-hills of Nepal

The crop livestock integrated farming system practiced in hilly regions of developing countries largely depends on the ecosystem as a whole. More especifically, the livestock component of the farming system relies heavily on natural resources such as forest, grazing and agricultural land for the supply of feed and fodder. The importance of animals as agents of nutrient recycling, sources of rural energy in terms of draft power and fuel, as well as being major contributors to the farm economy, has resulted in an increased population of ruminants in these regions, creating a threat to the sustainability and productivity of these land resources. This paper is an attempt to evaluate the livestock carrying capacity of land resources and to formulate the optimum herd size compatible with the differently resourced farm categories within the sub-watershed region of the mid-hills in Nepal. Our analysis reveals that the livestock carrying capacity of the land resources at the watershed level is 11696 Livestock Units (LU), whereas current stocking is 12985 LU, suggesting an overstocking of 1289 LU at the watershed level. Total feed supply from different sources is 12668 mt/yr whereas current Total Digestive Nutrient (TDN) demand is 14060 mt/yr, a negative balance of 1393 mt/yr. The excess livestock at the sub-watershed level directly implies excess livestock holding, producing a poor nutritional status for the farm household. Linear programming analysis reveals that the farmers of large, medium and small category farms can optimize their livestock holding by a combination of 3 LU buffaloes and 4 LU goats, 2 LU buffaloes and 4 LU goats and 1 LU buffaloes and 4.4 LU goats, thus giving maximum return to the farm family without exerting pressure on fragile natural resources.     

Stakeholder perspectives on land-use conflicts in the South African section of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area

ABSTRACT

Land-use conflict has become a topical issue due to an increase in the number of stakeholders having incompatible interests related to particular land uses. Competing land-uses include those for conservation, irrigation, game and livestock farming, settlements and mining. These groupings of land-uses have different interests and objectives. This study aims to investigate the basis for the land-use conflict, and to get insights into how various stakeholders perceive and interpret existing conflicts. Empirical results were drawn from observation, interviews and documents collected between 2011 and 2018. The interviews were held with various stakeholders involved in land-use decisions. Qualitative data were analysed through thematic content analysis, and observations assisted with the corroboration of information collected through interviews. The study recorded four central land-use conflicts: irrigation farming with conservation; game farming with conservation; settlements/livestock farming with conservation; and mining with conservation/game farming/irrigation farming. The study also explains how local stakeholders understand these conflicts.     

Traditional crop diversity for sustainable development of Central Himalayan agroecosystems

SUMMARY

A rich diversity of traditional crops occurs generally in the Himalaya and more particularly in Central Himalaya. Over forty species of food grains are grown in traditional agroecosystems of Central Himalaya, which have been managed by the local farming communities since time immemorial. These traditional crop varieties have evolved over centuries and are well adapted to the particular area. A number of edaphic, topographic and climatic factors associated with different selection pressures over centuries of cultivation resulted in immense variations in the crop species.

The grain and by-product yield of the majority of the traditional crops cultivated across an altitudinal gradient were worked out and compared with common food crops (paddy, wheat, mustard) at two points in time (1970-74, 1990–94) and it was found that almost all the traditional crops had slightly higher yields during 1970–74 than between 1990–94. However, common food crops grown during the Kharif season had higher yields during 1990–94 whereas, Rabi season crops exhibited higher yield during 1970–74. The yield of rainfed paddy remained static over the years across the altitudinal gradient. Among the traditional crops cultivated during the Kharif and Rabi seasons in mixed and pure forms at different altitudes were Macrotyloma uniforum (at higher altitude), Parilla frutescens and Vigna mungo (at middle altitude) and Panicum miliaceum (at lower altitude) which were found to be eco-energetically efficient. Avena sativa (oat) and mixed cropping of Fagopyrum esculentum and potato had higher energy efficiency ratios whereas the latter also exhibited a higher monetary output/input ratio. Crops like paddy and wheat with mustard, grown in irrigated land were found to be more eco-energetically efficient than the same crops grown in the rainfed land. In general, traditional crops possess higher nutritive value than the common food crops. The contribution of traditional crops to the local diet (kg/capita/year) and their energy and protein equivalents were higher during both time periods. It was observed that while exporting these traditional crops, the locals of the region are highly exploited by middlemen. Despite having huge potential, traditional crop diversity of this region has been reduced to a great extent during the last two decades. Besides, the area under cultivation with these crops has been declining rapidly. However, many of these crops possess immense potential to meet the growing food demand and ensure food security of an increasing population. Therefore, a comprehensive programme of conservation through various means and improvement of agronomic yield in their natural habitats is urgently needed.     

Are we leaving the community out of rural community sustainability?

SUMMARY

The Rio Earth Summit and publication and distribution of Agenda 21 (UN, 1992) have generated much activity in many nations towards development and implementation of community indicators of sustainable development (SI). In recent years efforts at development and implementation of SI have intensified at regional and urban government levels, although fewer efforts are evident at a rural community level. In response to initial ad hoc efforts, methodologies for SI construction are currently being proposed, tested and refined. Within this evolutionary process, increasing recognition is being given to the critical need for, and importance of, ‘stakeholder’ involvement in SI development and implementation. This paper critically reviews these and related efforts from the perspective of rural communities in Canada. The argument is presented that the process of development and implementation of rural community-level SI can significantly benefit from development and implementation of a methodological approach in support of principles and practices of effective stakeholder involvement. It is further argued that development of SI must be stakeholder-driven, and that a pivotal element in the SI development process is the facilitation of information sharing. The paper concludes with a proposal for an approach to stakeholder participation and information sharing achieved through research, testing and refinement, and integration of these concepts within the process of rural community sustainable indicator development.     

Invasion by the marine gastropod<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Ocinebrellus inornatus</Emphasis> in France. III. Comparison of biological traits with the resident species<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Ocenebra erinacea</Emphasis>

Invasive species impacts on native species and communities have been widely recognised for decades and may involve important economical losses. In this study, we examined two marine muricid gastropods: an invader, Ocinebrellus inornatus, and a resident, Ocenebra erinacea. Both species co-occur on French Atlantic coasts and probably have economical impacts on oyster farming areas of the Charente-Maritime region of France. In previous studies, we investigated the introduction source and the expansion patterns of O. inornatus, using molecular markers. However, these studies are not sufficient to fully understand the expansion dynamics of the exotics. The present framework is devoted to comparing life-history traits between the introduced and resident species. Our results first showed that O. inornatus has more favourable traits, such as a better mean growth rate and a higher reproductive effort, in comparison with O. erinacea. These traits may explain the invader establishment and, partly, its spread along the coast of France. Secondly, the resident species drilled a higher rate of oysters than the invader. Finally, the establishment of O. inornatus in France does not seem to be at the expense of O. erinacea because: (1) resources are not limiting in oyster farming areas and (2) there does not appear to be competition by interference between the species.Communicated by O. Kinne, Oldendorf/Luhe     

Beyond the cage: Ecosystem modelling for impact evaluation in aquaculture

An ecosystem modelling approach was used in two areas of the Eastern Mediterranean in order to examine the effects of aquaculture on the ecology of the water column. Aquaculture expansion to meet demands of a growing population is followed by concerns about keeping impacts within socially acceptable limits. Primarily the study aimed at investigating the fate of nutrients from finfish culture and evaluating changes in chemical and biological characteristics of the water body. The model used, Aquaculture Integrated Model (AIM), is based on a complex generic biogeochemical model coupled to a 3D hydrodynamic model. Selected areas included a finfish farm in the Northern Aegean, Greece and an aquaculture development area in Vassiliko, Cyprus. Ecosystem effects were evaluated on the basis of scale and importance. Scenarios under different production levels and hydrodynamic conditions were explored at the sites. Model results showed that farm discharges are rapidly dispersed from their point source in addition to a tendency for effluents to accumulate at distances not normally associated directly with farming activity. The wide range of parameters available in the model helped identify parameters more likely to be affected by the farming activities. There was a satisfactory correlation between observed and predicted model outputs. This study demonstrates the importance of approaching aquaculture impacts at an ecosystem level and the utility of a modelling tool to this end.     

Impact of storm Xynthia in 2010 on coastal agricultural areas: the Saint Laurent de la Prée research farm’s experience

Storm Xynthia crossed France’s western coast between 28th February and 1st March 2010. It hit the Vendée and Charente-Maritime departments hardest, as storm surge flooded up to 23,000 ha of coastal agricultural areas (i.e. polders), causing severe damage to farming operations. However, farm-level damage in the aftermath of seawater flooding is an issue that has rarely been explored in the literature. Here we investigated the effects of storm Xynthia on agriculture at the farm scale. We focused on the case study of Saint Laurent de la Prée research farm, a mixed crop–livestock system that was severely hit. All damages were described and economic losses were quantified for the years 2010 and 2011. The results show numerous consequences of the storm in terms of crop and fodder production losses, but also farm infrastructure repairs, crop restoration and animal health problems. Economic damage costs were high, reaching €71,720 in 2010 (€500/ha flooded) and €56,195 (€390/ha) in 2011 for the case study farm. The discussion highlights the farm-level impacts of seawater flooding and the crucial factors that can explain the damage caused to agriculture by storm events in coastal areas. The results are also discussed in the wider context of global warming which is expected to cause sea level rise and more frequent storm events in the future. The vulnerability of coastal agricultural areas to storms thus exposes broader issues of coastal flooding risk management and specifically the allied protection–remediation–adaptation measures. The conclusions underline the need for future research to address prospective scenarios and subsequent adaptive strategies.     

Localising the global food system

Agricultural systems have become increasingly industrialized and mechanized, relying on machinery and chemical inputs, rather than people and natural processes, to increase yields of food. The trend towards an increasingly globalised food system encourages unsustainable transportation of food around the world. Agricultural intensification and the globalisation of the agrofood chain has resulted in adverse environmental, social and economic consequences impeding moves towards sustainability. Organic farming can overcome many of the environmental problems associated with agricultural intensification. However, it does not have the potential to fully address the social and economic problems caused by the globalisation of the food system. Organic farming must be combined with local and regional sourcing of food products, for instance through forms of direct marketing of organic produce. Direct marketing schemes such as farmers' markets, food box delivery schemes and community-supported agriculture are all projects which, if managed with sustainability as the prime objective, have the potential to move towards a more socially, environmentally and economically sustainable agrofood system.     

The role of spatial scale in sustainable development

The role of spatial scale in sustainable development is assessed by dividing the world into multiple spatial units at different levels on a socio-political spatial scale. The basic patterns of sustainable development do not appear to be evident at all spatial levels, owing to the absence of some capital stocks and the conversion processes linking them, but environmental economics theory can be generalized to explain phenomena at various levels. Capital conversion processes influencing the sustainability of development of spatial units are constrained by processes at different levels, e.g. those imposing environmental conditions on development or affecting availability of investment capital. The autonomy of individual spatial units is also compromised by capital transfers to and from other units at the same level, so it is proposed that the sustainability of development of a particular unit should be estimated using net, rather than gross capital trends. Because of uneven development the same degree of sustainability should not be expected at the same time for all spatial units at the same spatial level.     

Geographic shifts in the highland cooking banana (Musa spp., group AAA-EA) production in Uganda

Summary

Between 1970 and 1990 Uganda witnessed the decline of the highland cooking banana from traditional growing areas in the central region, coupled with crop expansion in the country's southwest. Apprehension that the factors leading to loss of sustainability in the central region may be replayed in extant production areas has raised concern about the future of the cooking banana in Uganda. Consequently, a multi-disciplinary study was conducted at nine central and six southwestern sites to document shifts in cooking banana production and to elucidate the causes behind these shifts.

Cooking banana production in central Uganda sites fell from 18% of total food crop and 7% of total cash crop production in the 1970s to 4% and 2%, respectively, in the 1990s. Farmers identified reduced labour availability and management, increasing pest pressure and declining soil nutrient status as the major causes of decline. On-farm verification confirmed farmers' observations: weevil levels were the highest yet found in Uganda, while foliar samples indicated deficiencies in magnesium, nitrogen, and potassium. Soil nutrient deficiencies, however, appear to be a direct outcome ofreduced management rather than ‘soil exhaustion’ as postulated by farmers.

In southwestern Uganda, the importance of the cooking banana as a cash crop has quadrupled since 1970. Banana first penetrated the region because of its ease of production and stability of yield. High yields attracted traders and urban market demand drove further crop expansion. With current market incentives, banana management standards have been high. Under current levels of management, it is unlikely that farmers in southwestern Uganda will experience a similar process of decline as that which occurred in the central region. However, concern remains aboqt lack of replenishment of nutrients leaving the farm in the form of fruits sold for market, a nutrient loss which may eventually lead to non-sustainability of the cropping system.