The significance of various factors for GHG emissions of buildings

The objective of the research was to create improved understanding of the significance of diverse factors for the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of buildings. The specific focus of the study was on the assessment of the significance of building materials and embodied carbon. The scope of the study covers multi-storey residential buildings in Finland. This research was based on a literature survey and supported by a parametric case study. The parametric study assessed the building-material-related GHG emissions relative to total GHG emissions and the possible range of variation. The research assesses the minimum and maximum GHG emissions for production of buildings with similar spaces, to reveal the likely range of variation for the emissions. The calculations for the ‘minimum’ and ‘maximum’ scenarios assume a similar purpose of use, occupancy and spaces in the building, while the production methods, materials, site conditions and location are varied. The research also assesses the relative importance of various building components and other calculation parameters in terms of GHGs. Total material-related GHG emissions were compared with the GHG emissions caused by the operation of the building, at three distinct levels of energy performance. In addition, the material- and operation-related GHG emissions were compared with the location-related GHG emissions arising from people's mobility.     

考虑能源、环境影响的住宅建筑节能CGE模型构建

中国承诺将于2030年左右使单位国内生产总值二氧化碳排放比2005年下降60%—65%,排放总量达到峰值并争取尽早实现。我国目前的碳排放主要来自工业、交通运输业和建筑业,其中建筑业碳排放约40%,所占比重最大,而高达550亿m2的存量住宅能耗和排放是建筑业碳排放的主力。住宅建筑节能是关系到我国建筑业节能减排目标能否顺利实现的重要因素,是我国节能减排工作的重要领域。构建一个可用于衡量住宅建筑节能对资源环境及经济发展影响的可计算模型是推动住宅建筑节能工作的重要基础。本文尝试以CGE标准模型为基础,依次对住宅建筑生产模块、污染排放模块、节能住宅建筑模块、动态模块和环境福利模块进行详细构建说明。在四方面对标准模型进行扩展:第一,将生产要素扩展为资本、劳动和能源要素束,能源要素束被深化分解为清洁能源与非清洁能源束,然后再予深化细化;第二,依据差异的贸易伙伴将进出口细化为差异的国家和地区;第三,将建筑污染排放作为一个特殊部门,建立建筑污染排放模块,纳入到CGE模型中,并将污染要素纳入到效应函数中;第四,依据资本增长模型,建立动态模块。通过将住宅建筑节能作为变量扩展到标准CGE模型的方法,构建了住宅建筑节能CGE扩展模型。借助该扩展模型,可以研究非节能建筑约束、外部节能建筑与经济增长之间的内在关系,进而破解非节能建筑约束、外部节能建筑与住宅建筑节能快速发展之间难以协调的矛盾。在本文研究成果的基础上,可进一步建立相应的社会核算矩阵(SAM),并对各种函数的参数估计和敏感性检验进行实证分析。     

The role of integrated performance model in sustainable envelope design and assessment

The issue of sustainable design and assessment of the residential building envelope is a complex process that requires considering many factors including life cycle performance. As such, in an effort to develop an integrated approach that combines relevant sustainable development factors and life cycle concepts for sustainable designs, an integrated performance model (IPM) was developed. The IPM is an essential tool to aid the sustainable design of the residential building envelope, reduce the carbon emission and the whole residential building energy consumption, thereby ensuring sustainable performance of the building envelope and building sustainability. The IPM application indicates that sustainable performance of the building envelope in extreme weather and climatic condition is significantly influenced by the energy efficiency performance of the development.     

重庆地区夏季非空调室内环境的热舒适研究

通过问卷调查和现场测试方法对重庆某高校校舍和居民住宅的夏季室内热环境进行了调研,获得了530份有效问卷,采用Bin法划分温度区间,将各区间内的有效温度与平均热感觉进行线性回归分析,得到热中性有效温度为255℃,给出非空调环境下夏季80%可接受的有效温度范围为226℃～266℃,同时分析了非空调环境下预测热感觉与实测热感觉的差异,最后以重庆村镇典型住宅为例,对使用风扇改善室内热环境进行了评价。研究成果可为重庆地区非空调环境的热舒适评价提供参考,为进一步完善重庆地区热舒适标准提供科学依据,对采用风扇改善热环境和减少空调运行时间、降低建筑能耗有一定的指导意义。     

Life cycle assessments of municipal solid waste management systems: A comparative analysis of selected peer-reviewed literature

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a popular tool used to evaluate the environmental performance of municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems. Although reviews of LCAs of MSW have been undertaken to assess the validity of the ‘waste hierarchy,’ a recent review of the goal, scope and results of LCAs of mixed-material MSW management systems has yet to be performed. This paper is a comparative analysis of 20 process-based LCAs of MSW published between 2002 and 2008 in a total of 11 English-language peer-reviewed journals. It quantifies the methodological transparency of the studies and the frequency of use of particular system boundaries, types of data sources, environmental impact categories, impact weightings, economic valuations, sensitivity analyses, and LCA computer models. Net energy use (NEU), global warming potential (GWP), and acidification potential (AP) values for various types of MSW management systems are also compared using statistical indicators.The reviewed LCAs differ substantially in their system boundaries. Half or more of the LCAs either do not mention or are unclear in whether or not life cycle emissions from energy inputs or capital equipment are included in the calculation of results. Only four impact categories are common to more than half of the reviewed LCAs. The human and ecological toxicity impact categories are much less common than global warming potential, acidification, and eutrophication.A financial life cycle costing is present in eight of the reviewed LCAs, while an economic valuation of the environmental impacts is observed in five. Explicit sensitivity analyses are present in 4/20 of the studies, although many more LCAs evaluate the effects of varying model parameters by increasing the number of waste management scenarios. There is no consensus on whether or not to use the marginal or average source of electricity in calculating environmental impacts. Eight out of the 20 do not mention this source while the remaining LCAs are evenly split between the marginal and average electricity source. One quarter of the reviewed LCAs supply weighted results for the overall environmental performance of MSW management scenarios. All but one of these concurred with the ‘hierarchy of waste’ that the environmental performance of landfilling is lower than that of all the other treatment methods, and that thermal treatments are inferior to recycling.The comparative analyses of the NEU, GWP and AP results are based on 37, 45, and 42 MSW management scenarios, respectively. As measures of statistical dispersion, the interquartile ranges of the NEU, GWP and AP values are lowest for the landfilling (AP, NEU) and thermal treatment (GWP) scenarios. The results of the statistical analysis of the NEU, AP and GWP values appear to indicate that thermal treatment scenarios have a better environmental performance than landfilling, while the results for mixed treatment scenarios are less obvious. A comparison of the relative environmental performances of MSW treatment scenario types within each study did not provide a clear confirmation or repudiation of the waste hierarchy.This paper concludes that many recently published LCAs do not ensure that the methodological assumptions are made clear to the reader. Lack of transparency makes the results difficult to interpret, and hampers meaningful comparisons between the LCA results. A convergence in the adoption of particular assumptions that are more representative of MSW management systems would facilitate the comparison of the results.     

基于碳平衡核算的寒冷地区高校校园低碳建设策略研究

以校园碳平衡核算为主要技术手段的量化分析,能够目标明确的阐释校园内碳排放和碳吸收情况,根据碳排放量和碳吸收量占比制定相应的校园低碳减排建设策略,对高校今后的低碳化发展能够提供科学性、准确性的量化依据。本文考虑到碳排放因子的差异性,以实体项目作为分析基础,遴选与集成既有碳排放核算方法,进行了寒冷地区校园碳平衡核算。目标校园为山东建筑大学新校区,计算边界为山东建筑大学新校区空间范围内所有建筑和设施运行产生的、与学校日常事务相关的全部能源消费CO2排放。计算时间以2014年为参照基准年份,以2015年为主要计算年份。碳平衡计算结果表明:2015年校园碳排放量,建筑为20 051 t,交通为171 t,生活为6 576 t;碳吸收量中绿植固碳11 936 t,光伏固碳266 t,净排放24 596 t。校园碳排放系数为3.02,人均碳排放系数为1.04。分析核算数据,校园内碳排放量主要集中于建筑的日常运行用能排放,建筑用能排放中煤炭电力天然气,所涉及耗能用途主要为冬季采暖、空调、照明、热水及炊事。因此,这些用能成为影响校园碳排放的主要影响因素,据此提出高校校园碳减排策略,主要包括:基于碳平衡预测下的校园规划;遵从地域气候特征的生态补偿;建筑单体的低碳化设计与改造;设备系统的低碳化调适与更新;可再生能源的替代性应用。     

Stakeholder requirements for building energy efficiency in mass housing delivery: the House of Quality approach

Threats of climate change and future energy price uncertainty have led to a global debate on energy efficiency, particularly the energy efficiency of housing projects. This serious global problem calls for improvement in energy efficiency from all sectors, especially the building sector which is considered a major energy consumer. Adoption of energy efficiency design practices in the housing sector has been perceived to have a significant potential to contribute greatly to the sustainable building process. Additionally, most studies indicate that the understanding and integration of stakeholder requirements has an enormous potential towards increasing the sustainability perspectives that relate to social, environmental, economic and technical issues of buildings. However, there is enough evidence from several studies suggesting a lack of common perspective on stakeholder requirements towards building energy efficiency (BEE) in housing development. Hence it is argued that stakeholders’ alignment for energy efficiency improvement is crucial and a fundamental challenge that needs to be addressed if the goal of energy use reduction in buildings is to be achieved. The aim of this paper is to identify the important building energy requirements among stakeholders of mass housing projects and their impact on technical characteristics of mass housing projects. Through a survey of building industry stakeholders and using the House of Quality model for analysis of the data obtained, the study identified five (5) most rated BEE stakeholders’ requirements in respect of housing development. The study gives a new insight into the considerations of building stakeholders regarding energy efficiency. This insight is useful towards achieving sustainable building solutions that meet the sustainability features of housing development in Ghana and other countries with similar energy and housing challenges.     

Exergy efficiency analysis of a refurbished dwelling: a case study in Ljubljana,Slovenia

Buildings contribute almost half of the world's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions. Energy and water consumption are some of the largest and fastest growing pressures on the global environment. The use of energy is mainly attributed to the heating and cooling of buildings. The type of materials used in the construction of buildings plays a significant role in the life-cycle emissions of each dwelling. Changing the material use in the construction of an existing building and adding insulation could have a major impact on energy use and the environment of the building in its entire life cycle. This paper investigates the amount of exergy savings and the decrease in CO₂ emissions resulting from the refurbishing of an existing building in Ljubljana. This study results from the growing awareness that in the choice of building materials, the designer must consider not only the requirements of the owner and occupier of the building, but also the resulting energy savings, the resource base and the effects of the manufacturing and processing of building materials on the environment. The exergy efficiency of the material use is calculated and the environmental impact assessment of energy and material use is accounted for.     

Projections of industrial water withdrawal under shared socioeconomic pathways and climate mitigation scenarios

We estimated global future industrial water withdrawal (IWW) by considering socioeconomic driving forces, climate mitigation, and technological improvements, and by using the output of the Asia–Pacific Integrated Model/Computable General Equilibrium (AIM/CGE) model. We carried out this estimation in three steps. First, we developed a sector- and region-specific regression model for IWW. The model utilized and analyzed cross-country panel data using historical statistics of IWW for 10 sectors and 42 countries. Second, we estimated historical IWW by applying a regression model. Third, we projected future IWW from the output of AIM/CGE. For future projections, we considered and included multiple socioeconomic assumptions, namely different shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) with and without climate mitigation policy. In all of the baseline scenarios, IWW was projected to increase throughout the twenty-first century, but growth through the latter half of the century is likely to be modest mainly due to the effects of decreased water use intensity. The projections for global total IWW ranged from 461 to 1,560 km³/year in 2050 and from 196 to 1,463 km³/year in 2100. The effects of climate mitigation on IWW were both negative and positive, depending on the SSPs. We attributed differences among scenarios to the balance between the choices of carbon capture and storage (CCS) and renewable energy. A smaller share of CCS was accompanied by a larger share of non-thermal renewable energy, which requires a smaller amount of water withdrawal per unit of energy production. Renewable energy is, therefore, less water intensive than thermal power with CCS with regard to decarbonizing the power system.     

Assessment of indoor environmental quality in existing multi-family buildings in North–East Europe

Sixteen existing multi-family buildings (94 apartments) in Finland and 20 (96 apartments) in Lithuania were investigated prior to their renovation in order to develop and test out a common protocol for the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) assessment, and to assess the potential for improving IEQ along with energy efficiency. Baseline data on buildings, as well as data on temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), carbon dioxide (CO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), radon, and microbial content in settled dust were collected from each apartment. In addition, questionnaire data regarding housing quality and health were collected from the occupants. The results indicated that most measured IEQ parameters were within recommended limits. However, different baselines in each country were observed especially for parameters related to thermal conditions and ventilation. Different baselines were also observed for the respondents' satisfaction with their residence and indoor air quality, as well as their behavior related to indoor environment. In this paper, we present some evidence for the potential in improving IEQ along with energy efficiency in the current building stock, followed by discussion of possible IEQ indicators and development of the assessment protocol.     

基于情景分析法的中国馆碳减排效益评估

建筑部门的低碳发展已成为推进我国低碳经济至关重要的一个组成部分,因此正确客观地评价建筑的低碳水平具有重要的指导意义。本文以2010年上海世博会中国馆为研究对象,采用碳排放情景分析法,针对中国馆的基准建筑与实际建筑,计算其世博结束后正常运行条件下的碳排放水平,评估中国馆实际建筑的碳减排效益。使用建筑能耗模拟软件DesignBuilder对建筑全年能源消耗水平进行了模拟,并通过相应能源品种的碳排放因子分别计算了实际建筑和基准建筑的碳排放水平;同时应用全生命周期方法(LCA)分析了中国馆实际建筑应用太阳能光伏、LED照明技术相比于基准建筑所带来的减排效益。结果表明:世博结束后正常运行条件下,中国馆实际建筑年碳排放量为18 969 t CO2e,基准建筑年碳排放量为25 770 t CO2e,因此,相比基准建筑,中国馆实际建筑一年减排6 801 t CO2e,年碳减排率为26.4%;减排效益主要由节能设计及绿色技术贡献,分别占96.3%和3.7%。本文通过综合评估中国馆的碳减排效益,以期为我国公共建筑低碳工作的开展进行有益的探索。     

Improving the thermal performance of single-glazed windows using translucent granular aerogel

Cost-effective materials, products and installation methods are required to improve the energy efficiency of the UK's existing building stock. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential for high-performance translucent granular aerogel insulation to be retrofitted over single glazing to reduce heat loss without blocking out all of the useful natural light. In situ testing of a 10-mm-thick prototype panel, consisting of a clear twin-wall polycarbonate sheet filled with granular aerogel, was carried out and validated with steady-state calculations. Results demonstrate that an 80% reduction in heat loss can be achieved without detrimental reductions in light transmission. Payback calculations accounting for the inevitable thermal bridging from openable solutions such as roller shutters or pop-in secondary glazing suggest that a return on investment between 3.5 and 9.5 years is possible if products are consistently used over the heating season. Granular aerogel is a promising material for improving the thermal performance of existing windows. Future research will seek to map out different ways in which the material can be applied to the existing UK housing stock, identifying which systems offer the greatest potential for widespread CO₂ savings over their life cycle.     

The FARMING approach: main results and perspectives of the French FARMING groups

The Chernobyl accident led to a long-term crisis that affected agriculture, food and living conditions in complex ways, and that modified the usual economical, political and social relations between public and private stakeholders at local, national and international level. The EC FARMING project aims to create a European stakeholder network to consider possible rehabilitation strategies for rural areas contaminated after a nuclear accident. The Institute of Patrimonial Strategies of the National Institute on Agronomy had responsibility for setting up the French stakeholder group. The objective was to develop favourable conditions and ways whereby stakeholders could deal with such a complex situation as a nuclear emergency and develop rehabilitation strategies. The results from the 3-year work programme on both strategic and technical aspects, showed an increasing commitment from the stakeholders that led to the building up of a common understanding of what a nuclear accident could be and how it could be dealt with.     

Flood management: prediction of microbial contamination in large-scale floods in urban environments

With a changing climate and increased urbanisation, the occurrence and the impact of flooding is expected to increase significantly. Floods can bring pathogens into homes and cause lingering damp and microbial growth in buildings, with the level of growth and persistence dependent on the volume and chemical and biological content of the flood water, the properties of the contaminating microbes, and the surrounding environmental conditions, including the restoration time and methods, the heat and moisture transport properties of the envelope design, and the ability of the construction material to sustain the microbial growth. The public health risk will depend on the interaction of these complex processes and the vulnerability and susceptibility of occupants in the affected areas. After the 2007 floods in the UK, the Pitt review noted that there is lack of relevant scientific evidence and consistency with regard to the management and treatment of flooded homes, which not only put the local population at risk but also caused unnecessary delays in the restoration effort. Understanding the drying behaviour of flooded buildings in the UK building stock under different scenarios, and the ability of microbial contaminants to grow, persist, and produce toxins within these buildings can help inform recovery efforts. To contribute to future flood management, this paper proposes the use of building simulations and biological models to predict the risk of microbial contamination in typical UK buildings. We review the state of the art with regard to biological contamination following flooding, relevant building simulation, simulation-linked microbial modelling, and current practical considerations in flood remediation. Using the city of London as an example, a methodology is proposed that uses GIS as a platform to integrate drying models and microbial risk models with the local building stock and flood models. The integrated tool will help local governments, health authorities, insurance companies and residents to better understand, prepare for and manage a large-scale flood in urban environments.     

RETRACTED ARTICLE: Perspectives for the long-term penetration of new renewables in complex energy systems: the Italian scenario

Renewable energy sources are mainly used in the electrical sector. Electricity is not a storable commodity. Hence, it is necessary to produce the requested quantity and distribute it through the system in such a way as to ensure that electricity supply and demand are always evenly balanced. This constraint is actually the main problem related to the penetration of new renewables (wind and photovoltaic power) in the context of complex energy systems. The paper analyzes some aspects in connection with the problem of new renewable energy penetration. The case of Italian scenario is considered as a meaningful reference due to the characteristic size and the complexity of the same. The various energy scenarios are evaluated with the aid of a multipurpose software taking into account the interconnections between the different energetic uses. In particular, it is shown how the penetration of new renewable energies is limited at an upper level by technological considerations and it will be more sustainable if an integration of the various energy use (thermal, mobility and electrical) field will be considered.     

Life cycle assessment environmental data for structural steel construction in Greece

The construction industry is a critical sector in relation to sustainable development as its optimisation in terms of the consumption of resources can provide significant environmental benefits. To achieve this, a number of tools and methodologies have been developed to assist decision making. Life cycle assessment is one of the most acknowledged and widely used methodologies to assess the sustainability of construction works. Its efficient use, however, requires environmental data that in some cases are not yet available. Especially for sectors such as steel construction in which the potential for sustainable development is increased due to the recycling and reuse potential of the material, the lack of such data slows sustainability-related progress down. The current research addresses this issue by collecting primary environmental data for cold-formed structural steel and compiling the required data-sets. The data-sets are used to assess the environmental impact of an existing steel building and identify how and to what extent the environment is burdened by its construction. The findings of the research include the aforementioned environmental data which can be used in environmental analyses related to construction projects, while additional conclusions concerning the environmental impact of steel buildings in terms of quantity and type were also drawn.     

小城镇能源优化配置研究

构建我国能源安全体系面临诸多困境。小城镇能源保障是其最薄弱的环节之一。但小城镇能源保障及其优化配置问题并没有得到政府、学术界应有的重视。通过与城市的比较分析。得出小城镇能源类型和结构特征，指出能源自然禀赋构成小城镇能源类型和结构的“本底”。社会经济发展水平。产业结构变迁主宰小城镇能源类型和结构变迁。在此基础上，提出了小城镇能源优化配置战略目标和导向。根据这一目标和导向，对小城镇能源优化配置的政策措施进行初步探讨。包括编制小城镇能源资源利用规划；加快可再生能源的应用技术研究；建立小城镇能源资源分配、开发、流通的市场机制；保护小城镇能源资源；优化小城镇产业结构。大力推动循环经济；推广分布式能源供给模式，提高小城镇能源供给安全。     

Study on the Balance of Agricultural Water and Land Resources on Ningxia Plain

The article puts forward the process and means of regional water and land balance research, and then from two scenarios which are the balances under natural regulation and human intervention, calculated and analysed the balance between water and land on Ningxia Plain. For the balance under natural regulation named farmland water balance, using farmland water resource balance equation, the research estimated the monthly farmland＂ water balance of 8 major crops for all of the 12 counties on Ningxia Plain in the period of 1960-2001; for the balance under human intervention, the research estimated land-use water balance equation of the counties in 2000, and calculated the balance between land use and water resources including irrigating water of all the 12 counties on Ningxia Plain. Results showed that ①precipitation can not meet the water demand of the crops for growth and development on Ningxia Plain, and water shortage is the primary character of farmland water balance under natural regulation. ②the diversity of water and land balance of different counties is distinctly influenced by the crop structure, water quantity for irrigation and irrigation level. ③Irrigation water could meet the crop water demand on Ningxia Plain in 2000, but there was not much space to expand irrigating cultivated land.     

Analysis of BIM application relationship with integration degree of construction environment

As the world pays more attention to low-earbon and sustainable development,there’s a growing trend in architecture,engineering and construction fields to construct greener,more energy efficient and more sustainable buildings with the help of building information modeling(BIM).As BIM application becomes popular in industry,more and more scholars and engineers point out that an integrated construction environment is better for BIM’s fully functional capability.This paper illustrates the relationship between BIM application and an integrated construction environment based on case survey data.It is found that even though an integration construction environment is not necessary in BIM application,the statistical results showed that DBB(design-bid-build)and CM(construction management)modes have great differences in BIM’s application implementation scope and implementation deepness,while DB and CM modes do not.     

Study on the Balance of Agricultural Water and Land Resources on Ningxia Plain

Abstract

The article puts forward the process and means of regional water and land balance research, and then from two scenarios which are the balances under natural regulation and human intervention, calculated and analysed the balance between water and land on Ningxia Plain. For the balance under natural regulation named farmland water balance, using farmland water resource balance equation, the research estimated the monthly farmland water balance of 8 major crops for all of the 12 counties on Ningxia Plain in the period of 1960–2001; for the balance under human intervention, the research estimated land-use water balance equation of the counties in 2000, and calculated the balance between land use and water resources including irrigating water of all the 12 counties on Ningxia Plain. Results showed that ①precipitation can not meet the water demand of the crops for growth and development on Ningxia Plain, and water shortage is the primary character of farmland water balance under natural regulation, ②the diversity of water and land balance of different counties is distinctly influenced by the crop structure, water quantity for irrigation and irrigation level. ③Irrigation water could meet the crop water demand on Ningxia Plain in 2000, but there was not much space to expand irrigating cultivated land.