A Large-Eddy Simulation Study of the Convective Boundary Layer over Philadelphia during the 1999 Summer NE-OPS Campaign

This study presents a large-eddy simulation (LES) study of the convective boundary layer on August 1, 1999 over Philadelphia, PA during a summer ozone episode. The study is an evaluation of the Colorado State University's Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Version 4.3 (RAMS4.3) with the LES option using Northeast Oxidant and Particulate Study (NE-OPS) data. Simulations were performed with different imposed sensible heat fluxes at the ground surface. The model was initialized with the atmospheric sounding data collected at Philadelphia at 1230 UTC and model integrations continued till 2130 UTC. The resulting mean profiles of temperature and humidity obtained from the LES model were compared with atmospheric soundings, tethered balloon and aircraft data collected during the NE-OPS 1999 field campaign. Also the model-derived vertical profiles of virtual temperature were compared with NE-OPS Radio Acoustic Sounder System (RASS) data while the humidity profiles were compared with NE-OPS lidar data. The comparison of the radiosonde data with the LES model predictions suggests that the growth of the mixing layer is reasonably well simulated by the model. Overall, the agreement of temperature predictions of the LES model with the radiosonde observations is good. The model appears to underestimate humidity values for the case of higher imposed sensible heat flux. However, the humidity values in the mixing layer agree quite well with radiosonde observations for the case of lower imposed sensible heat flux. The model-predicted temperature and humidity profiles are in reasonable agreement with the tethered balloon data except for some small overestimation of temperature at lower layers and some underestimation of humidity values. However, the humidity profiles as simulated by the model agree quite well with the tethered balloon data for the case of lower imposed sensible heat flux. The model-predicted virtual temperature profile is also in better agreement with RASS data for the case of lower imposed sensible heat flux. The model-predicted temperature profile further agrees quite well with aircraft data for the case of lower imposed heat flux. However, the relative humidity values predicted by the model are lower compared with the aircraft data. The model-predicted humidity profiles are only in partial agreement with the lidar data. The results of this study suggest that the explicitly resolved energetic eddies seem to provide the correct forcing necessary to produce good agreement with observations for the case of an imposed sensible heat flux of 0.1 K m s^–1 at the surface.     

Some characteristics of the urban boundary layer above Rome, Italy, and applicability of Monin–Obukhov similarity

Air temperature and wind speed profiles measured during one year by means of a SODAR-RASS system located within a large park were examined for the urban boundary layer (UBL) over Rome, Italy. These data, combined with velocity and temperature measurements performed near the ground were used to analyze the vertical structure of the boundary layer and to estimate some turbulence parameters characterizing the surface layer. About 52,000 vertical profiles of wind speed and temperature were used for the analysis, allowing investigation for a large variety of stability conditions. First, friction velocity and Obukhov length were examined, showing clearly their dependence on the time of day and season. Second, the applicability of the Monin–Obukhov (MO) similarity theory—developed over rural terrain—was tested up to 200?m above ground level. For the wind speed profiles, the performance of the MO similarity degrades with both increasing height and stability, with maximum errors that are on the order of 300?% at 200?m for the most stable case. In contrast, for the air temperature the error always remains below 50?%.     

Trans-Sahara migrants select flight altitudes to minimize energy costs rather than water loss

Meteorological conditions influence strongly the energy and water budget of birds. By adjusting their flights spatially and temporally with respect to these conditions, birds can reduce their energy expenditure and water loss considerably. By radar, we quantified songbird migration across the western Sahara in spring and autumn. There autumn migrants face the trade-off between (a) favorable winds combined with hot and dry air at low altitudes and (b) unfavorable winds combined with humid and cold air higher up. Thus, it can be tested whether birds may chose altitudes to minimize water loss instead of energy expenditure. We predicted optimal flight altitudes with respect to water loss and energy expenditure based on a physiological flight model when crossing the western Sahara and compared these model predictions spatially and temporally with measured songbird densities. The model aiming for minimal water consumption predicted a mean flight altitude of 3,400 m under autumn conditions. However, 64% of the nocturnal songbird migration flew at altitudes below 1,000 m above ground level profiting from tailwind. This preference for tailwind in autumn, despite the hot and dry air, emphasizes the importance of energy savings and diminishes the significance of possible water stress for the selection of flight altitude. Nevertheless, during daytime, high energy expenditure due to air turbulences and water loss due to warmer air and direct solar radiation prevent songbirds from prolonging their nocturnal flights regularly into the day. Birds crossing the Sahara save water by nocturnal flights and diurnal rests.     

基于修正遗传算法的夏玉米作物系数及蒸散发估算

农田蒸散量是作物蒸腾量和土壤蒸发量的总和,准确估算农田蒸散量对制定合理的灌溉计划至关重要,进而对农作物的增产保收具有重要的意义。研究作物系数及蒸散量估算模型已成为一个热点科学问题。淮河流域是中国主要的农业生产基地,而夏玉米是淮河流域最主要的粮食作物之一。为研究夏玉米全生育期蒸散估算模型,反映夏玉米逐日作物系数及蒸散量的变化,为当地的农业生产活动提供指导,采用五道沟水文实验站称重式蒸渗仪及气象要素实测数据,应用遗传算法,构建夏玉米全生育期单作物系数蒸散模型,得到其4个生长阶段的作物系数估算值。其中,参考作物蒸散量采用FAO PenmanMonteith公式计算;对估算误差较大的发育期,利用叶面积指数和发育期天数构建调整模型,对发育期作物系数进行数值修正,取得了较好的效果,并进一步估算蒸散量,最终得到遗传算法与多项式回归相结合的夏玉米蒸散估算模型。结果表明:全生育期内,修正后作物系数计算值与实际值的平均绝对误差为0.09,均方根误差为0.12,准确率(绝对误差<0.3)为96.2%;蒸散量计算值与实际值的平均绝对误差为0.89 mm·d^-1,均方根误差为1.28 mm·d^-1,准确率(绝对误差<4 mm·d^-1)为100%;相比FAO推荐的作物系数模型,修正遗传算法模型作物系数和蒸散量的拟合准确率均明显提高,达到精度要求,该文修正遗传算法模型可用于夏玉米的蒸散估算。     

A comparative study of prognostic MM5 meteorological modeling with aircraft, wind profiler, lidar, tethered balloon and RASS data over Philadelphia during a 1999 summer episode

This study presents a comparative evaluation of the prognostic meteorological Fifth Generation NCAR Pennsylvania State University Mesoscale Model (MM5) using data from the Northeast Oxidant and Particle Study (NE-OPS) research program collected over Philadelphia, PA during a summer episode in 1999. A set of model simulations utilizing a nested grid of 36 km, 12 km and 4 km horizontal resolutions with 21 layers in the vertical direction was performed for a period of 101 h from July 15, 1999; 12 UTC to July 19, 1999; 17 UTC. The model predictions obtained with 4 km horizontal grid resolution were compared with the NE-OPS observations. Comparisons of model temperature with aircraft data revealed that the model exhibited slight underestimation as noted by previous investigators. Comparisons of model temperature with aircraft and tethered balloon data indicate that the mean absolute error varied up to 1.5 °C. The comparisons of model relative humidity with aircraft and tethered balloon indicate that the mean relative error varied from –11% to –22% for the tethered balloon and from –5% to –30% for the aircraft data. The mean relative error for water vapor mixing ratio with respect to the lidar data exhibited a negative bias consistent with the humidity bias corresponding to aircraft and tethered balloon data. The tendency of MM5 to produce estimates of very low wind speeds, especially in the early-mid afternoon hours, as noted by earlier investigators, is seen in this study also. It is indeed true that the initial fields as well as the fields utilized in the data assimilation also contribute to some of the differences between the model and observations. Studies such as these which compare the grid averaged mean state variables with observations have inherent difficulties. Despite the above limitations, the results of the present study broadly conform to the general traits of MM5 as noted by earlier investigators.     

Efficiency of mercapto flavor compounds in removing acrylamide under high temperature and low humidity conditions

Acrylamide (AA) is a potential human carcinogen, genotoxicant, and neurotoxicant. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the ability of mercapto flavor compounds to remove AA released from consumer packaging into food products. Four mercapto flavor compounds including 1,2-ethanedithiol, 1-butanethiol, 2-methyl-3-furanthiol, and 2-furanmethanethiol were employed to extract AA in model system using high temperature and low humidity. Our study showed that mercaptans were effective in eliminating AA in our model system. In order to remove 0.2 μmol AA, the optimal conditions in the reaction system were mercaptan flavor chemicals at 5 μmol, temperature 180 °C, and reaction time 25 min. In the presence of a higher pH, the greater was the amount of AA eliminated. Evidence indicates that employment of mercapto flavor chemicals under certain temperature and pH conditions is a reliable method to remove any unwanted AA from food products.     

武当山土壤的粘粒矿物与表面电荷性质

本文研究了湖北省武当山风景区石英云母片岩发育的７个土样的粘土矿物组成、粘粒氧化物含量。土壤电荷量及电荷零点．结果表明：（１）供试土壤粘土矿物均以２∶１型矿物占优势，在海拔４４０ｍ以下的土壤中主要是水云母和蛭石，在海拔６７０ｍ以上的土壤中主要是１．４ｎｍ过渡矿物、绿泥石和水云母；（２）土液粘粘中氧化铁和氧化铝的含量、粘粒硅铝率及氧化铁的游离度随海拔的变化而变化的趋势不甚明显，但非晶形铝铁氧化物的含量及氧化铝和铁的活化度随海拔升高而趋于增加；（３）土壤可变负电荷量、阴离子吸附量和电荷零点随海拔升高而趋于增加。     

Analytical model for vertical velocity profiles in flows with submerged shrub-like vegetation

An analytical solution for the vertical profiles of the horizontal velocity of channel flow with submerged shrub-like vegetation is investigated in this paper. At first, a shape function is proposed to fit the diameter change of different types of shrub-like vegetation. Using the momentum theorem and the mixing-length turbulence model, an analytical solution for the vertical profile of the horizontal velocity within the vegetation is obtained. The velocity distribution of the whole column is determined in tandem with the logarithmic velocity profile above the vegetation. The solution is compared with experimental data in excellent agreement. The results show that the flow above the vegetation has a logarithmic velocity profile while the flow within the vegetation is impacted greatly by the shape and density of vegetation. The flows within shrub-like vegetations are non-uniform and vary inversely with the shrub diameter.     

低湿诱导黄瓜抗病性研究

以黄瓜感病品种为试材，在国内外首次证实低湿处理诱导抗黄瓜病害的现象。研究证实，黄瓜幼苗经低湿处理7d后，对霜霉病、炭疽病、黑星病产生抗性。低湿程度不同，诱导效果也不同，1／2、1／3正常浇水量对黄瓜抗霜霉病有明显诱导作用；1／3、1／4正常浇水量对黄瓜抗炭疽和黑星病有明显诱导作用，诱导抗性持续时间可达到12d。     

Climate change, humidity, and mortality in the United States

This paper estimates the effects of humidity and temperature on mortality rates in the United States (c. 1973-2002) in order to provide an insight into the potential health impacts of climate change. I find that humidity, like temperature, is an important determinant of mortality. Coupled with Hadley CM3 climate-change predictions, I project that mortality rates are likely to change little on the aggregate for the United States. However, distributional impacts matter: mortality rates are likely to decline in cold and dry areas, but increase in hot and humid areas. Further, accounting for humidity has important implications for evaluating these distributional effects.     

Modeling seed dispersal distances: implications for transgenic Pinus taeda.

Predicting forest-tree seed dispersal across a landscape is useful for estimating gene flow from genetically engineered (GE) or transgenic trees. The question of biocontainment has yet to be resolved, although field-trial permits for transgenic forest trees are on the rise. Most current field trials in the United States occur in the Southeast where Pinus taeda L., an indigenous species, is the major timber commodity. Seed dispersal distances were simulated using a model where the major determinants were: (1) forest canopy height at seed release, (2) terminal velocity of the seeds, (3) absolute seed release, and (4) turbulent-flow statistics, all of which were measured or determined within a P. taeda plantation established from seeds collected from wild forest-tree stands at the Duke Forest near Durham, North Carolina, USA. In plantations aged 16 and 25 years our model results showed that most of the seeds fell within local-neighborhood dispersal distances, with estimates ranging from 0.05 to 0.14 km from the source. A fraction of seeds was uplifted above the forest canopy and moved via the long-distance dispersal (LDD) process as far as 11.9-33.7 km. Out of 10(5) seeds produced per hectare per year, roughly 440 seeds were predicted to be uplifted by vertical eddies above the forest canopy and transported via LDD. Of these, 70 seeds/ha traveled distances in excess of 1 km from the source, a distance too great to serve as a biocontainment zone. The probability of LDD occurrence of transgenic conifer seeds at distances exceeding 1 km approached 100%.     

Bats aloft: variability in echolocation call structure at high altitudes

Bats alter their echolocation in response to changes in ecological and behavioral conditions, but little is known about how they adjust call structure in response to changes in altitude. We examined altitudinal variation in the echolocation of Brazilian free-tailed bats, Tadarida brasiliensis, a species known to fly to altitudes of 3,000 m above the ground. From 50.2 h of recordings, we analyzed 113 high-quality echolocation call sequences recorded from 0 to 862 m above ground level. Bats flying near the ground used shorter, higher-frequency, broader-bandwidth calls compared to bats at higher altitudes, an effect likely due to the greater levels of echo-producing clutter (i.e., vegetation, buildings) found near the ground. When ground-level recordings are excluded, bats continue to shift towards the use of longer-duration, lower-frequency, narrower-bandwidth calls with increasing altitude. We propose that the observed high-altitude changes in call structure are a response to changing acoustic attenuation rates and/or decreasing insect densities at higher altitudes.     

全球变暖对中国区域相对湿度变化的影响

运用中国气象中心提供的中国标准气象站点实测的50年相对湿度月平均数据,采用等值线分析方法,研究了过去50年中国大气相对湿度的动态变化。分析表明：中国相对湿度区域变化,在秦岭淮河一线以北变化范围明显,主要以相对湿度减小为主;秦淮以南相对湿度变化在区域上表现不明显;从季节分析看,夏季变化幅度不大,其它三个季节变化幅度大,特别是冬季变化幅度最大;从区域看,以青藏高原、东北和华北变化显著。     

Species diversity and faunal affinities of meiobenthic Copepoda in the deep sea

This first attempt at measuring species diversity of the numerically abundant marine meiobenthos on a vertical gradient into the deep sea supports the stability-time hypothesis developed with the macrofauna. Diversity, as measured by rarefaction, indicated highly evolved, stable and unique assemblages in the deep sea. Shelf samples were consistently dominated by a few species; below 1000 m many of the species were new and few were duplicated from sample to sample. Rarefaction curves are clearly separable for the three environments, with the vertical component of diversity increasing to abyssal depths. Rarefaction analysis of shelf samples above and below the Cape Hatteras zoogeographical boundary further revealed distinct spilits in the faunal assemblages. Faunal affinity analyses indicate that the deep-sea fauna is not homogenously distributed over wide expanses of the ocean floor and are contrary to previously reported macrofaunal findings.     

Identification of step pattern in ordered data sets using the Walsh transform algorithm

This work is an attempt to recognize discontinuities within ordered data series by the use of the Walsh functions. Walsh functions are a system of orthogonal functions used in showing how the energy in a given signal is distributed among these rectangular wave components revealing the existent boundaries. This paper presents the capacity of Walsh transform on determining the statistical significance of discontinuities within ordered marine ecological data. Marine ecosystems present high vertical patterns; dataseries on particulate matter concentrations (measured by the Underwater Video Profiler (UVP)) were used to recognize homogeneity limits in water columns. Firstly, Walsh functions are generated in a compact form. Then, a spectral decomposition is performed on the ecological signal to obtain a stepped Walsh version; the step width at this stage is unvarying, picking constant vertical sections. To avoid this limitation, the estimated series is then smoothed to recognize changing step widths by merging successive blocks presenting statistical non-significant difference; here the nonparametric Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is used. This Walsh transform algorithm provides a fast, simple yet accurate means of separating ordered ecological data into groups of observations corresponding to different marine water masses. This method is applied to four profiles measured at the same site during 2 days. The temporal evolution of depth transitions are first discussed and then used for the validation of the transform model.     

Environmental preferences of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) at the northern extent of its range

We used acoustic telemetry to examine the small-scale movement patterns of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) in the California Bight at the northern extent of their range. Oceanographic profiles of temperature, oxygen, currents and fluorometry were used to determine the relationship between movements and environmental features. Three yellowfin tuna (8 to 16 kg) were tracked for 2 to 3 d. All three fish spent the majority of their time above the thermocline (18 to 45 m in depth) in water temperatures >17.5 °C. In the California Bight, yellowfin tuna have a limited vertical distribution due to the restriction imposed by temperature. The three fish made periodic short dives below the thermocline (60 to 80 m), encountering cooler temperatures (>11 °C). When swimming in northern latitudes, the depth of the mixed layer largely defines the spatial distribution of yellowfin tuna within the water column. Yellowfin prefer to spend most of their time just above the top of the thermocline. Oxygen profiles indicated that the tunas encountered oceanic water masses that ranged most often from 6.8 to 8.6 mg O₂ l⁻¹, indicating no limitation due to oxygen concentrations. The yellowfin tuna traveled at speeds ranging from 0.46 to 0.90 m s⁻¹ (0.9 to 1.8 knots h⁻¹) and frequently exhibited an oscillatory diving pattern previously suggested to be a possible strategy for conserving energy during swimming. Received: 14 February 1997 / Accepted: 14 April 1997     

Vertical and horizontal movements of striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) near the Hawaiian Islands,determined by ultrasonic telemetry,with simultaneous measurement of oceanic currents

We measured the vertical and horizontal movements of striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) off the leeward coast of the Island of Hawaii between 20 November and 18 December 1992 while simultaneously gathering data on water temperature and oceanic currents. Fish movements were monitored by ultrasonic depth-sensitive transmitters, depth-temperature profiles by an expendable bathythermograph system, and oceanic current patterns by an acoustic Doppler current profiler. Like Indo-Pacific blue marlin (Makaira mazara), striped marlin near Hawaii spend >85% of their time in the mixed layer (i.e., above 90 m depth). The maximum depth for striped marlin appears to be limited by water temperatures 8 C° colder than the mixed layer, rather than by an absolute lower temperature. We also found that the horizontal displacements of some striped marlin can be strongly influenced by currents.     

Vertical distributions of eggs,nauplii and copepodites of Calanus helgolandicus (Copepoda: Crustacea) in the Celtic Sea

The vertical distributions of eggs, nauplii, copepodites and adults of Calanus helgolandicus (Claus) from five oblique plankton-net hauls taken in May (1980), March and September (1981) and January (1982) at a site in the shelf sea to the south-west of the United Kingdom are described. The water depth is approximately 95 m and becomes thermally stratified during the summer months when a thermocline of ∼6 C° develops. In early spring when the water column was isothermal (∼8 °C), the development of the eggs and nauplii took place below 60 m and a single ontogenetic migration was observed between Nauplius VI (NVI) and Copepodite I (CI). As the temperature of the water increased, this migration occurred in progressively earlier naupliar stages. The eggs were distributed throughout the water column in the profile taken in early May when a 1 C° thermocline occurred between 30 to 40 m. The majority of the NI to NIV stages occurred below 40 m, with the ontogenetic migration taking place in the NIV stage; the NV and NVI stages were found above the thermocline. In September, the eggs were again distributed throughout the water column (101 490 m^-2), with a maximum number of >4 500 m^-3 occurring in the surface to 5 m depth interval. Nauplius I and II were found at all depths, demonstrating that hatching occurred throughout the water column. The ontogenetic migration in these late-summer profiles took place between the NII and NIII stages, the remainder of the nauplii being found above the thermocline in the top 20 m. This is the first time that an ontogenetic migration, similar to the developmental ascent observed in the naupliar stages of the euphausiid Euphausia superba in the deep ocean, has been shown for a copepod nauplius.     

Horizontal movements and depth distribution of large adult yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) near the Hawaiian Islands, recorded using ultrasonic telemetry: implications for the physiological ecology of pelagic fishes

We measured the horizontal and vertical movements of five adult yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares, estimated body mass 64 to 93 kg) near the main Hawaiian Islands, while simultaneously gathering data on oceanographic conditions and currents. Fish movements were recorded by means of ultrasonic depth-sensitive transmitters. Depth–temperature and depth–oxygen profiles were measured with vertical conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) casts, and the current-velocity field was surveyed using an acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP). Large adult yellowfin tuna spent ≃60 to 80% of their time in or immediately below the relatively uniform-temperature surface-layer (i.e. above 100 m), a behavior pattern similar to that previously reported for juvenile yellowfin tuna, blue marlin (Makaira nigricans), and striped marlin (Tetrapturus audax) tracked in the same area. In all three species, maximum swimming depths appear to be limited by water temperatures 8 C° colder than the surface-layer water temperature. Therefore, neither large body mass, nor the ability to maintain elevated swimming-muscle temperatures due to the presence of vascular counter-current heat exchangers in tunas, appears to permit greater vertical mobility or the ability to remain for extended periods below the thermocline. In those areas where the decrease in oxygen with depth is not limiting, the vertical movements of yellowfin tuna, blue marlin and striped marlin all appear to be restricted by the effects of water temperature on cardiac muscle function. Like juvenile yellowfin tuna, but unlike blue marlin and striped marlin, adult yellowfin tuna remained within 18.5 km of the coast and became associated with floating objects, including anchored fish-aggregating devices (FADs) and the tracking vessel. Like juvenile yellowfin tuna, large adult yellowfin repeatedly re-visit the same FAD, and appear able to navigate precisely between FADs that are up to 18 km apart. The median speed over ground ranged from 72 to 154 cm s⁻¹. Neither speed nor direction was strongly influenced by currents. Received: 27 March 1998 / Accepted: 13 November 1998     

河西走廊极端干旱区PM10质量浓度分布特征及其与气象要素关系研究

利用敦煌和酒泉2007—2011年的PM10质量浓度资料和风速、气温、相对湿度、气压、天气现象等相关气象要素资料,分析了河西走廊西部极端干旱区不同下垫面环境PM。0质量浓度的时空分布特征,结果表明,下垫面是沙地环境的敦煌PMl0质量浓度年平均值为128．9lμg·m-1,明显高于绿洲环境酒泉的76．1mg·m-1两站均是春季大于其他季节,尤以4月最为显著,敦煌和酒泉分别达到272．1lμg·m0和151lμg·m-2;PMl0质量浓度的不同分布特征与气象因素有密切的关系,尤其受沙尘天气的影响较大,其最大值可以反映沙尘天气的强度,非沙尘日PMl0质量浓度在不同下垫面条件下虽有一定相差,但空气质量状况均在“良”以上。两站PM10质量浓度日变化差异较大,敦煌四季的日变化特征均不特别显著,变化比较平稳,基本都呈单峰单谷型分布,最大值出现在17：00时左右,最小值出现在6：00左右;酒泉春、秋季日变化基本一致,呈单峰型,最大值出现在正午时段;夏季日变化规律性不明显,变化幅度比较平缓;冬季呈双峰双谷型,最大值和次大值分别出现在16：00和2：00左右,最小值和次小值分别出现在10：00和0：00左右。进一步分析发现,在沙尘日和非沙尘日PM10质量浓度明显不同,其对应的压、温、湿、风及能见度也有一定规律,沙尘日的日均风速和日最大风速大于非沙尘日,相对湿度、气压和能见度小于非沙尘日。两站的气温、气压、相对湿度、风速等气象要素与PM10质量浓度均有一定相关性,但PM10质量浓度的分布最终是受各要素综合影响的结果,敦煌和酒泉,PM值与PM10质量浓度日均值的相关性都很显著,相关系数分别为0．8961和0．9152,远高于其他各单气象要素与PM10质量浓度的相关性。两站沙尘日的昂M均值分别是非沙尘日2-3倍,因此气象影响指数能有效的区别沙尘日和非沙尘日。IPM的分布也能较好的反映PMl0质量浓度的分布,因此可用抽d来量化评价PM10质量浓度。