Experimental study on DDT for hydrogen–methane–air mixtures in tube with obstacles

An experimental study of flame propagation, acceleration and transition to detonation in stoichiometric hydrogen–methane–air mixtures in 6 m long tube filled with obstacles located at different configurations was performed. The initial conditions of the hydrogen–methane–air mixtures were 1 atm and 293 K. Four different cases of obstacle blockage ratio (BR) 0.7, 0.6, 0.5 and 0.4 and three cases of obstacle spacing were used. The wave propagation was monitored by piezoelectric pressure transducers PCB. Pressure transducers were located at different positions along the channel to collect data concerning DDT and detonation development. Tested mixtures were ignited by a weak electric spark at one end of the tube. Detonation cell sizes were measured using smoked foil technique and analyzed with Matlab image processing toolbox. As a result of the experiments the deflagration and detonation regimes and velocities of flame propagation in the obstructed tube were determined.     

Z型管道中气体火焰传播规律的实验研究

本文实验研究了丙烷／氧气／空气的当量比气体燃烧火焰通过两个90°弯管形成的“z”型管道的传播规律,通过改变第一个弯管前加速段的长度和改变气体浓度,实验研究了稳定爆轰波,非稳定爆轰波以及爆燃火焰通过“z”型管道的传播规律。利用光电传感器记录弯管前后的火焰传播速度,运用燃烧理论和爆轰波的理论对实验结果做了分析。结果表明:稳定爆轰波通过“z”型管道时传播速度有明显的下降;但“z”型管道对非稳定爆轰波的传播作用受到非稳定爆轰波自身速度的影响;爆燃火焰通过“z”型管道时火焰传播速度的变化呈现不确定性。     

氢气爆炸特性研究

本文研究、总结了氢气与空气(氢气与氧气)的混合物的爆炸特性.即氢气在空气中,在比较低燃烧界限的情况下,只有向上的传播和非常少的超压可以观测得到.正因为氢气的这种特性,将氢应用于科技将极大地推进社会进步,氢燃料将成为一种主要的能源.然而,氢技术应用的成功与否主要取决于氢使用的安全性.所以,必须掌握实际使用时氢气燃烧的性能.本文在日本过去十年实验数据的基础上,通过实验研究了氢气与空气混合物的燃点.研究了氢气、氧气混合物经氮气稀释后,按化学当量比例将不同浓度的氢气与空气进行混合,并得出了低温下的爆炸压力特性.随后,分别讨论了在初始压力下一致的情况下,试管直径相同的状况下,氢气与空气混合浓度相同的情况下,这三种爆轰传播限制之间的关系.得出了在空气中直接点燃的发生爆轰的最小试管直径,最小的装药量之间的关系,进行了爆轰危险性分级.最后,文章概括比较了氢与其他燃料的燃烧特性,评估了氢气燃烧过程中的危险与安全因素.     

爆炸事故及预防

为了促进我国的爆炸安全研究工作更深入发展,本文列出了利用爆炸激波管技术测定氢气、汽油、铝粉等可爆性物质的爆炸特性。研究表明:这些可爆性物质在一定条件都能形成破坏力极大的爆轰现象。实验确定了氢、汽油和氧混合物的可爆(轰)极限、可燃性极限、混合物临界初始压力等爆炸临界条件。控制可爆性物质的初始条件不超过其爆炸临界条件,能够防止爆轰或爆燃现象发生;添加不参加反应的物质(如氩气、氮气、水蒸汽等)能够使已达到爆炸条件的混合物阻爆。本文的数据可供有关部门参考。     

Decomposing deflagration properties of acetylene under low temperatures

In this study, the decomposing deflagration properties of acetylene under temperatures down to −60 °C and pressures up to 0.2 MPa in a 1-L cylindrical closed vessel were experimentally investigated. The gases were ignited by an electric spark at the center of the vessel. The lower-limit pressures of decomposing deflagration by electric spark ignition were determined. The lower-limit pressure at 10 °C was 0.15 MPa, and it gradually increased with decreasing temperature. The lower-limit pressure at −60^oC was 0.18 MPa. The flame propagation properties, such as the pressure, were measured with pressure transducers mounted along the vessel. The maximum decomposing deflagration pressures and pressure rising rates also increased with decreasing temperature.     

Scale effects on hydrogen–air fast deflagrations and detonations in small obstructed channels

An experimental study of flame propagation, acceleration and transition to detonation in hydrogen–air mixture in 2-m-long rectangular cross-section channel filled with obstacles located at the bottom wall was performed. The initial conditions of the hydrogen–air mixture were 0.1 MPa and 293 K and stoichiometric composition (29.6% H₂ in air). The channel width was 0.11 m and blockage ratio was 0.5 in all experiments. The effect of channel geometrical scale on flame propagation was studied by using four channel heights H of 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.08 m. In each case, the obstacle height was equal to H/2 and the obstacle spacing was 2H.

The propagation of flame and pressure waves was monitored by four pressure transducers and four ion probes. The pairs of transducers and probes were placed at various locations along the channel in order to get information about the progress of the phenomena along the channel.

As a result of the experiments, the deflagration and detonation regimes and velocities of flame propagation in the obstructed channel were established.     

Efficient simulation of flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition in smooth pipes

Evaluation of accident scenarios including flame acceleration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in chemical plant piping systems increases the need for an efficient numerical simulation tool capable of dealing with this phenomenon. In this work, a hybrid pressure-density-based solver including deflagrative flame propagation as well as detonation propagation is presented. The initial incompressible acceleration stage is covered by the pressure-based solver until the flame velocity reaches the fast flame regime and transition to the density-based solver is done. The deflagration source term is formulated in terms of a turbulent flame speed closure model incorporating various physical effects crucial for flame acceleration at low turbulence conditions (Katzy and Sattelmayer, 2018). Modelling of the detonation source term is based on a quadratic heat release function (Hasslberger, 2017). The presented numerical approach is validated in terms of DDT locations and pressure data from Schildberg (2015) as well as recently completed flame tip position measurements. For this purpose, H₂/O₂/N₂ mixtures ranging from 25.6 vol-% H₂ to 29.56 vol-% H₂ in two different pipe geometries are considered. The focus of the current work is on predicting the DDT location correctly and good agreement is observed for the investigated cases.     

气体爆轰波在弯曲管道中传播特性的实验研究

对丙烷 -空气爆轰波通过 90°弯管道时的传播特性作了实验研究 ,主要是气体爆轰波通过弯管道前后的火焰速度以及加速情况的研究 ,初步得出 ,爆轰波经过弯管道后单位距离上的火焰速度增量显著增加。这一研究结果证明 ,弯曲管道对于爆燃与爆轰波火焰有明显的加速作用     

不同形状受限空间内油气爆燃特性的实验研究

基于实验对4个不同形状的20L容器内的油气爆燃过程进行了研究,探讨了不同形状受限空间内爆炸压力荷载的变化和火焰行为的区别。结果表明:管道（短管和长管）的压力时序曲线较容积式受限空间（球形容器和立方体容器）的压力时序曲线更复杂,并且出现压力振荡;随着初始浓度的增加,超压值和平均升压速率均先增大后减小,在浓度为1.74%时达到最大值,此时,超压从大到小依次为:长管>短管>立方体>球形容器,平均升压速率从大到小依次为:短管>立方体>长管>球形容器;在爆燃初期,立方体中火焰行为为半球状层流火焰→扁平层流火焰,火焰速度先增大后减小,最大速度为12.5 m/s,长管中火焰行为为半球状层流火焰→拉伸指状火焰,火焰速度一直增大,最大速度为40 m/s。     

气体爆燃火焰在狭缝中的淬熄

通过叙述可燃气体爆燃火焰在平行板狭缝中传播时产生淬熄的实验和理论研究结果，给出了甲烷，丙烷，乙炔，氢气等四种可燃气体与空气的预混气作为实验介质所进行的爆火焰淬熄实验中，火焰传播速度与淬熄直径、淬熄长度之间的关系。对于气体爆燃火争的淬熄理论模型进行了探讨，得到了有应用价值的结论。     

T型管道不同封闭状态瓦斯爆燃火焰传播特征

为了研究分岔管道不同封闭状态下瓦斯爆燃火焰阵面传播规律,在自制的T型透明分岔管道内,设置支管端口完全封闭、直管左端口弱封闭,采用光电传感器和压力传感器测试了直管右端弱封闭、完全封闭2种情况下,预混甲烷-空气可燃气体爆燃火焰传播过程中速度、超压参数的变化情况。结果表明:由于分岔的存在,2种封闭状态在支管端点火后瓦斯爆燃火焰阵面在支管中的传播速度均先增大后减小;直管右端弱封闭时,经过分岔后火焰加速向直管两端传播速度基本一致,分别达到86.29 m/s和88.07 m/s;直管右端完全封闭时,火焰向弱封闭端传播速度增大至166.67 m/s,火焰向完全封闭端传播时并不断压缩未燃气体产生高压振荡反馈导致火焰振荡传播现象,火焰速度不断减小至4.84 m/s;管道内瓦斯爆燃超压均迅速上升到达峰值,之后受压缩气体的膨胀和冲击后爆燃产物的振荡作用迅速下降。     

Crimped metal ribbon flame arrestors for the protection of gas measurement systems

This paper summarises the results of extensive research to determine the limit of safety against flame transmission for flame arrestors of relatively small size fitted with arrestor elements made of crimped metal ribbon. Depending on the reactivity of the fuel gas/air mixture and the tube geometry the running up to detonation and hence the stressing of a flame arrestor by a detonation is possible in longer tubes with relatively small diameters. Only with reactive gas phases of explosion group I this stressing case for a flame arrestor can be excluded. With detonative gas phases the stressing of the flame arrestor decisively depends on the place of installation with respect to the point of transition from deflagration to detonation in the system considered. Five different stressing cases with a probably very different limiting pressure of safety against flame transmission must be distinguished. The results of the investigations will help to evaluate the results from testing of flame arrestors carried out according to the requirements in national and international standards or regulations.     

An experimental study of flame acceleration and deflagration to detonation transition in representative process piping

The paper summarizes the results of experimental tests and accompanying analyses to investigate the factors that govern flame acceleration and potential transition to detonation in a relatively long unobstructed piping system. The overall aim of the work was to obtain sufficient experimental data so as to be able to develop and evaluate methodologies for classifying and predicting potential detonation flame acceleration and deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) hazard in industrial process pipes and mixtures. The present results show that the flame acceleration process in an unobstructed pipe exhibit three distinct phases: an initial establishment phase; a second rapid acceleration phase and a final transition to detonation phase. Test results with ethylene indicate that the acceleration process is not sensitive to initial pressure (all other parameters remaining constant) but can be sensitivity to initial pipe wall temperature or possibly mixture humidity. The presence of bends increases the local rate of turbulent combustion, an effect attributed to the additional turbulence generated downstream of the bend. For straight pipes, detonation was only observed to develop for hydrogen–air and ethylene–air mixtures. Detonation was not observed with methane, propane or acetone as fuel in the present piping apparatus.     

Experimental investigation of hydrogen–air deflagrations and detonations in semi-confined flat layers

This paper presents results of an experimental investigation on the deflagration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in an obstructed (blockage ratio BR = 50%), semi-confined flat layer filled with uniform hydrogen–air mixtures. The effect of mixture reactivity depending on flat layer thickness and its width is studied to evaluate the critical conditions for sonic flame propagation and the possibility for detonation onset. The experiments were performed in a transparent, rectangular channel with a length of 2.5 m. The flat layer thickness was varied from 0.06 to 0.24 m and the experiments were performed for different channel widths of 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 m. The experimental results show flame velocity vs. hydrogen concentration for different thicknesses and widths of the semi-confined flat layer. Three different flame propagation regimes were observed: slow subsonic flame (M << 1), sonic deflagration (M ～ 1) and detonation (M >> 1). It is shown that flame acceleration (FA) to sonic speed is independent of the width of the flat layer. The critical expansion ratio for effective flame acceleration to sonic speed was found to be linearly dependent on the reciprocal layer thickness.     

Fast flame speeds and rates of pressure rise in the initial period of gas explosions in large L/D cylindrical enclosures

Flame speeds and rates of pressure rise for gaseous explosions in a 76 mm diameter closed cylindrical vessel of large length to diameter ratio (L/D = 21.6), were quantitatively investigated. Methane, propane, ethylene and hydrogen mixtures with air were studied across their respective flammability ranges. Ignition was affected at one end of the vessel. Very fast flame speeds corresponding to high rates of pressure rise were measured in the initial 5–10% of the total explosion time. During this period 20–35% of the maximum explosion pressure was produced, and over half of the flame propagation distance was completed. Previous work has concentrated on the later stages of this type of explosion; the development of tulip flames, pressure wave effects and transition to turbulence. The initial fast phase is very important and should dominate considerations in pressure relief vent design for vessels of large L/D.     

Determination of the performance limits of flame arresters at increased oxygen concentrations

This investigation shows how an increased oxygen concentration influences the performance limits of crimped ribbon deflagration flame arresters at elevated pressures. An evaluation of the maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) as reliable criterion for describing the performance limits under non-atmospheric conditions is given. Measurements of MESGs and flame arrester performance tests were performed. Various fuel/oxygen/air mixtures containing ethylene and propane were used as testing gases. Former studies on the pressure dependence and the influence of oxygen on the MESG were initially confirmed. Furthermore, performance tests using a commercial deflagration flame arrester revealed that such a flame arrester may prevent flame transmission also at non-atmospheric conditions within a limited range. For various oxygen concentrations the performance limits were reached at the same MESG. Hence, it can be assumed that a flame arrester possesses a device- and fuel-specific maximum experimental safe gap for a specific gas mixture in different concentrations and at different pressures. This performance-related maximum safe gap can be used as a parameter for estimating and describing the performance limits of a flame arrester. It offers an attempt to simplify the testing and qualification of deflagration flame arresters for non-atmospheric conditions.     

DDT and detonation propagation limits in an obstacle filled tube

Experiments with hydrogen–air and ethylene–air mixtures at atmospheric pressure were carried out in a 6.1 m long, 0.1 m diameter tube with different obstacle configurations and ignition types. Classical DDT experiments were performed with the first part of the tube filled with equally spaced 75 mm (44% area blockage ratio) orifice-plates. The DDT limits, defining the so-called quasi-detonation regime, where the wave propagates at a velocity above the speed of sound in the products, were found to be well correlated with d/λ = 1, where d is orifice-plate diameter and λ is the detonation cell size. The only exception was the rich ethylene limit where d/λ = 1.9 was found. In a second experiment detonation propagation limits were measured by transmitting a CJ detonation wave into an obstacle filled (same equally spaced 44% orifice plates) section of the tube. An oxy-acetylene driver promptly initiated a detonation wave at one end. In this experiment the quasi-detonation propagation limits were found to agree very well with the d/λ = 1 correlation. This indicates that the d/λ = 1 represents a propagation limit. In general, one can conclude that the classical DDT limits measured in an orifice-plate filled tube are governed by the wave propagation mechanism, independent of detonation initiation (DDT process) that can occur locally in the obstacles outside these limits. For rich mixtures, transmission of the quasi-detonation into the smooth tube resulted in CJ detonation wave. However, in a narrow range of mixtures on the lean side, the detonation failed to transmit in the smooth tube. This highlights the critical role that shock reflection plays in the propagation of quasi-detonation waves.     

泡沫金属对甲烷/空气爆燃火焰的淬熄实验研究

为研究多孔材料对甲烷/空气预混气体爆燃火焰的抑制淬熄效果,运用一套自主设计的管道爆炸抑制系统进行实验研究。在实验中运用高速摄像机记录爆燃火焰在穿过多孔材料板时的淬熄过程,采用20,40,60,80PPI (孔目数) 的4种多孔材料,研究不同孔目数的多孔材料对爆燃火焰传播的形态结构、火焰传播速度以及抑制淬熄等特性的影响。结果表明:多孔材料的孔目数对爆燃火焰传播的早期阶段影响较小,爆燃火焰都经历了半球形火焰和指形火焰阶段;当火焰传播到多孔材料板时,孔目数越大对火焰的降速作用越强,80PPI工况下爆燃火焰不能穿过多孔材料板,即发生淬熄。实验结果揭示了多孔材料对火焰的淬熄作用与微孔通道和火焰的相互作用有关。     

管道内瓦斯爆炸传播的试验研究

运用大型试验管道对瓦斯爆炸传播规律进行试验研究,并对瓦斯爆炸压力峰值、火焰速度和呈现时间进行分析,得出:在不出现爆轰的前提下,爆源点附近的压力峰值是全管道的最大值;爆炸压力峰值在沿管道的传播过程中从爆源点附近是先增大后减小,然后再逐渐增大且压力峰值最早呈现在出口附近;火焰传播速度随着传播距离的增大而逐渐增大且在爆炸初期增大速率更快;瓦斯浓度对爆炸压力峰值、火焰传播速度和呈现时间等都有重要影响。