The effect of turbulence on the rate of evaporation of LNG on water

The present study provides new measurements of the rate of evaporation of cryogenic liquids, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquid nitrogen (LN₂), floating on a water surface with different levels of turbulence intensity. The turbulent water surface is generated with an upward-pointing submerged jet with controlled jet velocity, an approach which has often been used in studies of free-surface turbulence. Direct measurements of the rate of evaporation were carried out for different pool thicknesses and turbulence intensities of the water surface. These tests reveal a strong dependence of the evaporation rate on the turbulence intensity, as well as a dependence on the thickness of the cryogenic liquid layer above the water surface. Models of LNG spills on water currently use a single rate of evaporation; these findings show that this approach is inadequate. Future models should incorporate the water turbulence intensity, and possibly the LNG spill thickness for improved accuracy.     

Small-scale experimental study of vaporization flux of liquid nitrogen released on ice

One of the LNG accident scenarios is the collision of an LNG carrier on an iceberg during marine transportation. A collision can result in damages to the vessel and lead to the leakage of the contents on ice or an ice-water mixture. When cryogenic liquid comes in contact with ice, it undergoes rapid vaporization due to the difference in temperature between the ice and cryogenic liquid. This process is different from the heat transfer between water and cryogenic liquid as ice is a solid and thus heat transfer to the pool occurs primarily through conduction. In this paper, the heat transfer phenomenon between ice and cryogenic liquid was studied through a small-scale experiment and the resulting vaporization mass fluxes were reported. The experiment involved six spills with varying amount of liquid nitrogen on different ice temperature to determine its effect on vaporization mass flux. The vaporization mass fluxes were determined by direct measurement of the mass loss during the experiment. The results indicated that the vaporization mass flux was a function of release rate and ice temperature. When the release rate and ice temperature was high, the vaporization mass flux follows a decreasing trend. With further reduction in release rate and ice temperature, the vaporization mass flux was found to be independent with time. The one dimensional conduction model was validated against experimental results. The predicted temperatures and heat flux were found to be in good agreement with the experimental data.     

三通管不同开口状态下爆炸气流湍流变化规律

为研究三通管不同开口状态下爆炸参数变化规律,基于数值模拟分析管内爆炸湍流动能大小、形态变化特征.研究结果表明:不同开口状态下三通管道内湍流动能峰值最大值均出现在垂直岔管内,垂直管道开口情况下管道内的最大湍动能峰值增大29.86％,水平管道开口情况下该数值降低10.12％,而两端均开口情况下,增大178.45％;管内与湍...     

Quantification of source-level turbulence during LNG spills onto a water pond

The use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models to simulate LNG vapor dispersion scenarios has been growing steadily over the last few years, with applications to LNG spills on land as well as on water. Before a CFD model may be used to predict the vapor dispersion hazard distances for a hypothetical LNG spill scenario, it is necessary for the model to be validated with respect to relevant experimental data. As part of a joint-industry project aimed at validating the CFD methodology, the LNG vapor source term, including the turbulence level associated with the evaporation process vapors was quantified for one of the Falcon tests.This paper presents the method that was used to quantify the turbulent intensity of evaporating LNG, by analyzing the video images of one of the Falcon tests, which involved LNG spills onto a water pond. The measured rate of LNG pool growth and spreading and the quantified turbulence intensity that were obtained from the image analysis were used as the LNG vapor source term in the CFD model to simulate the Falcon-1 LNG spill test. Several CFD simulations were performed, using a vaporization flux of 0.127 kg/m² s, radial and outward spreading velocities of 1.53 and 0.55 m/s respectively, and a range of turbulence kinetic energy values between 2.9 and 28.8 m²/s². The resulting growth and spread of the vapor cloud within the impounded area and outside of it were found to match the observed behavior and the experimental measured data.The results of the analysis presented in this paper demonstrate that a detailed and accurate definition of the LNG vapor source term is critical in order for any vapor cloud dispersion simulation to provide useful and reliable results.     

贯通巷道风流流场数值模拟若干关键问题研究

根据计算流体力学基本理论,利用计算流体动力学(CFD)软件Fluent,运用三维k-ε湍流模型对贯通型巷道风流流场数值模拟中风流入口、出口位置对巷道风流流场分布的影响、湍动能k及湍动能耗散率ε的取值对模拟结果的影响等进行考察。通过研究确定模拟巷道的流体力学入口长度,确定模拟巷道出口位置;湍动能k及湍动能耗散率ε的取值对入口附近流动还没有充分发展区域拟解算的结果影响较大,而对流动充分发展的区域影响较小。将数值模拟风速值与理论计算风速值进行对比,模拟结果与计算结果非常一致,验证了数值模拟方法的正确性,为研究贯通型巷道风流传质过程、瓦斯运移规律及通风排污效率等提供了理论基础。     

Modeling of a cryogenic liquid pool boiling by CFD simulation

A boiling model is developed by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) code to calculate the source term of a cryogenic liquid spill. The model includes the effect of the changing ground temperature on the vaporization rate of the cryogenic liquid. Simulations are performed for liquid nitrogen. The model can describe different boiling regimes (film, transition and nucleate). The heat flux calculated for each boiling regimes are compared to the experimental data from literature. The developed numerical model seems to have a good ability to predict the heat flux for the film boiling stage. Model development is still necessary to improve the prediction of the nucleate boiling regime. Overall, the approach shows very promising results to model the complex physical phenomena involved in in the vaporization of cryogenic liquid pool spilled on ground.     

管道结构对氢/空预混气体爆炸特性影响研究*

为研究管道结构对氢-空预混气体爆炸特性影响,采用实验与数值模拟相结合的方法,分析不同管道结构内氢-空预混气体燃爆时火焰传播进程、爆炸压力、湍流动能变化及流场分布。结果表明:90°弯管对氢-空预混气体爆炸强度增强作用明显高于T型分岔管和直管。火焰阵面在结构突变处褶皱变形较明显,并出现大尺度强湍流和涡团,气团脉动速度与湍流燃烧速率不断增大,氢-空预混气体质量扩散速率与热量扩散速率增大,湍流动能呈迅速上升趋势。     

消防脉冲水枪喷嘴结构优化研究

为了进一步提高脉冲水枪的灭火效率,采用CFD技术对维多辛斯基曲线结构、锥直结构和锥角结构3种喷嘴结构进行选型优化。CFD数值模型采用RNG k-ε方法模拟湍流,利用VOF模型追踪管道内部及外部流场的气液界面,研究了不同喷嘴结构对气液分布、能量转化、速度分布的影响,并结合水室中水的体积分数和出口速度曲线图对喷射周期进行分析。研究结果表明:维多辛斯基曲线结构射流周期T=14.8 ms、锥直结构T=15.4 ms、锥角结构T=17 ms;维多辛斯基曲线结构和锥直结构的出口速度衰减较缓慢,喷嘴前端的圆柱结构能提高射流速度的稳定性;维多辛斯基曲线结构喷嘴的出口速度更稳定、集束性更好、能量转化率更高,且产生的射流水柱呈锥式逐渐扩散,动能集中分布在轴线附近,能有效增大喷射距离,提高脉冲水枪的灭火效率。     

热氨融霜过程多相相变流动液击形成机理研究

热氨融霜多相流动液锤诱发的回气总管频现爆管和穿孔腐蚀事故的预防仍是一项技术挑战。基于进口速度突变和瞬态冷凝与汽化相变直接驱动力,建立了描述多相相变流动液击形成过程的理论模型及其数值模拟算法,研究了回气总管热氨蒸汽与深冷液氨多相分层流动液击的形成机理,研究结果表明:在进口流速突变条件下,瞬态冷凝与汽化相变多相流动诱发的液击压强是无相变多相流动液击压强4倍左右,考虑相变驱动是准确预测多相流动液击的理论前提,多相流动液锤压力显多波型大幅脉动波动变化,且随着氨液剩余填充量增加而增大,而深冷液氨区局部液击压力降至液氨的饱和蒸汽压所诱发的空泡溃灭是导致回气总管频现穿孔腐蚀的直接原因。     

矿井定常湍流脉动对通风阻力测试影响的理论分析

受湍流脉动影响,矿井通风阻力测试结果的数值波动是不可避免的。为探究湍流脉动对通风阻力测试的影响程度,以压差计测阻法为例进行理论分析。根据阻力测定原理和能量方程,在定常圆管流动条件下,导出湍流脉动影响下倾斜压差计测量示值波动范围的计算表达式;理论分析测试巷道的断面尺寸和风速大小对数值波动幅度和测试精度的影响。结果表明,压差计示值的波动幅度与当地湍流强度及风速的平方成正比;巷道风速的量级是压能波动的主导因素,测试风速越大,液面数值涨落幅度越大,波动现象越明显;而数值波动幅度大不等同于测试精度低,小断面大风速巷道中易获得满意的测试精度而大断面巷道中无论风速高低均不易获得较高测试精度。为减小湍流脉动造成的通风阻力测试的随机误差,需在短时间内进行多次测试取统计平均结果,这在大断面巷道的阻力测试中尤为重要。     

粉尘密度对20 L球罐内粉尘分散规律影响

为分析不同粉尘因密度的差异对20 L球形爆炸装置球罐内粉尘分散过程流场变量变化和点火延迟时间的影响,利用CFD数值模拟的方法,研究了3种不同密度的粉尘在球罐分散过程中湍流动能、流场速度、粉尘浓度3种流场变量在球心处的变化规律。研究结果表明:在其他条件一致的情况下,粉尘密度越小,湍流动能的峰值越小,粉尘云浓度和流场速度的峰值则越大;粉尘密度对湍流动能的增值速率没有影响,而粉尘密度越小,流场速度和粉尘浓度的增值速率越快,粉尘浓度衰减至稳定值的时间也越短。表明粉尘密度越小,点火延迟时间也越小,因此,建议铝粉点火延迟时间在50~60 ms之间,锆粉和锌粉在60~80 ms之间。     

Investigation of pool spreading and vaporization behavior in medium-scale LNG tests

A failure of a Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) tanker can occur due to collision or rupture in loading/unloading lines resulting in spillage of LNG on water. Upon release, a spreading liquid can form a pool with rapid vaporization leading to the formation of a flammable vapor cloud. Safety analysis for the protection of public and property involves the determination of consequences of such accidental releases. To address this complex pool spreading and vaporization phenomenon of LNG, an investigation is performed based on the experimental tests that were conducted by the Mary Kay O'Connor Process Safety Center (MKOPSC) in 2007. The 2007 tests are a part of medium-scale experiments carried out at the Brayton Fire Training Field (BFTF), College Station. The dataset represents a semi-continuous spill on water, where LNG is released on a confined area of water for a specified duration of time. The pool spreading and vaporization behavior are validated using empirical models, which involved determination of pool spreading parameters and vaporization rates with respect to time. Knowledge of the pool diameter, pool height and spreading rate are found to be important in calculating the vaporization rates of the liquid pool. The paper also presents a method to determine the vaporization mass flux of LNG using water temperature data that is recorded in the experiment. The vaporization rates are observed to be high initially and tend to decrease once the pool stopped spreading. The results of the analysis indicated that a vaporization mass flux that is varying with time is required for accurate determination of the vaporization rate. Based on the data analysis, sources of uncertainties in the experimental data were identified to arise from ice formation and vapor blocking.     

Effect of turbulence spatial distribution on the deflagration index: Comparison between 20 L and 1 m3 vessels

In this work, the effect of spatial distribution and values of the turbulent kinetic energy on the pressure-time history and then on the explosion parameters (deflagration index and maximum pressure) was quantified in both the standard vessels (20 L and 1 m³).The turbulent kinetic energy maps were computed in both 20 L and 1 m³ vessels by means of CFD simulations with validated models. Starting from these maps, the turbulent flame propagation of cornstarch was calculated, by means of the software CHEMKIN. Then, the pressure-time history was evaluated and from this, the explosion parameters.Calculations were performed for three cases: not uniform turbulence level as computed from CFD simulations, uniform turbulence level and equal to the maximum value, uniform profile and equal to the minimum value. It was found that the cornstarch in the 20 L vessel get variable classes (St-1, St-2, St-3) with respect to the 1 m³ (St-1). However, simulations performed on increasing the ignition delay time, shown that the same results can be attained only using 260 ms as ignition delay time in the 20 L vessel.     

Laboratory scale analysis of the influence of different heat transfer mechanisms on liquid nitrogen vaporization rate

The prediction of the potential hazards associated to accidental liquefied natural gas (LNG) spills has motivated a number of different studies including experimental and numerical approaches. Most of these studies focus on dispersion predictions, however there is limited information regarding source term of it: liquid spill and vaporization. There is a need of further improvements on the understanding of these phenomena and the quantification of the most important parameters that can affect them.The vaporization of cryogenic liquids is governed by the heat transfer phenomena including conduction, convection and thermal radiation mechanisms. The present work investigates the contribution of each of these heat transfer modes to the vaporization rate of cryogenic liquid nitrogen (LN₂) contained in a Dewar flask using well controlled and instrumented laboratory scale experiments. LN₂ vaporization rate was measured with individually controllable contributions from convective (generated by an electric fan) and thermal radiative (generated by light bulb) heat transfer in the presence of a baseline conductive heat transfer rate.In both cases of convection and radiation analysis the experimental study showed that they can play a significant role in the vaporization rate of LN₂. It was observed that the radiative heat absorbed by the LN₂ during the vaporization experiment represents only 50%–65% of the incident radiation that would reach the LN₂ pool surface if no vapour was present. Convective heat transfer generated by the fan was shown to have had the most significant contribution to the total heat transfer. As expected, this contribution was significantly higher than the one from bulb radiation. The experimental data also showed that the liquid level in the Dewar play a key role in the resulting amount of convective heat transfer. This could be attributed to the fact that lower liquid level the side walls of the Dewar were high enough to hold a layer of vapour and limit air motion directly above the liquid surface, thus limiting the heat transfer by convection.     

Large eddy simulation of methane–air deflagration in an obstructed chamber using different combustion models

In this paper, simulations of methane–air deflagration inside a semi-confined chamber with three solid obstacles have been carried out with large eddy simulation (LES) technique. Three sub-grid scale (SGS) combustion models, including power-law flame wrinkling model by Charlette et al., turbulent flame speed closure (TFC) model, and eddy dissipation model (EDM), are applied. All numerical results have been compared to literature experimental data. It is found that the power-law flame wrinkling model by Charlette et al. is able to better predict the generated pressure and other flame features, such as flame structure, position, speed and acceleration against measured data. Based on the power-law flame wrinkling model, the flame–vortex interaction during the deflagration progress is also investigated. The results obtained have demonstrated that higher turbulence levels, induced by obstacles, wrinkle the flame and then increase its surface area, the burning rates and the flame speed.     

Modeling of maize starch explosions in a 12 m3 silo

This paper presents a 2-dimensional numerical model of Eulerian–Lagrangian multi-phase combustion flow to predict maize starch explosions in a 12 m³ silo. The flow field after ignition, flame propagation velocity and pressure development histories etc. during the explosion, are calculated. The data of non-uniform initial conditions including dust concentration, flow velocity and turbulent RMS velocity in the silo for this model are adopted from Hauert, Vogl and Radandt (1994) [Hauert, F., Vogl, A., Radandt, S. (1994). Measurement of turbulence and dust concentration in silos and vessels. 6th international colloquium on dust explosions (pp. 71–80), Shenyang, China, August 28–September 2, 1994.]. A simple concept of dust granule taking into consideration dust dispersion efficiency is proposed and introduced. The Lagrangian method is used to trace trajectories and granules, so it is easier to consider particle size distribution. The k−ε model is used to simulate the turbulence of the gas phase, and the particle's pulsation is modeled by random vector wind generated by the surrounding gas. In the combustion model, vaporization of water, volatilization of volatile, gas phase reaction and the particle's surface reaction are taken into account.     

Determination of turbulent burning velocities of dust air mixtures with the open tube method

Correlating turbulent burning velocity to turbulence intensity and basic flame parameters-like laminar burning velocity for dust air mixtures is not only a scientific challenge but also of practical importance for the modelling of dust flame propagation in industrial facilities and choice of adequate safety strategy. The open tube method has been implemented to measure laminar and turbulent burning velocities at laboratory scale for turbulence intensities in the range of a few m/s. Special care has been given to the experimental technique so that a direct access to the desired parameters was possible minimising interpretation difficulties. In particular, the flame is propagating freely, the flame velocity is directly accessible by visualisation and the turbulence intensity is measured at the flame front during flame propagation with special aerodynamic probes. In the present paper, those achievements are briefly recalled. In addition, a complete set of experiments for diametrically opposed dusts, starch and aluminium, has been performed and is presented hereafter. The experimental data, measured for potato dust air mixtures seem to be in accordance with the Bray Gülder model in the range of 1.5 m/s<u′<3.5 m/s. For a further confirmation, the measurement range has been extended to lower levels of turbulence of u′<1.5 m/s. This could be achieved by changing the mode of preparation of the dust air mixture. In former tests, the particles have been injected into the tube from a pressurised dust reservoir; for the lower turbulence range, the particles have been inserted into the tube from above by means of a sieve–riddler system, and the turbulence generated from the pressurised gas reservoir as before. For higher levels of turbulence, aluminium air mixtures have been investigated using the particle injection mode with pressurised dust reservoir. Due to high burning rates much higher flame speeds than for potato dusts of up to 23 m/s have been obtained.     

Validation of liquid nitrogen vaporisation rate by small scale experiments and analysis of the conductive heat flux from the concrete

The vaporisation of a liquid nitrogen pool spilled on concrete ground was investigated in small scale field experiments. The pool vaporisation rate and the heat transfer from the concrete ground were measured using a balance and a set of embedded heat flux sensors and thermocouples. The ability to predict the concrete's thermal properties based on these measurements was investigated. This work showed that a simple, one-dimensional theoretical model, assuming heat conduction through a semi-infinite ground with ideal contact between the cryogenic liquid and the ground, commonly used to describe the heat transfer from a ground to the LNG, can be used to match the observed vaporisation rate. Though estimated parameters, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity, do not necessary represent real values. Although the observed vaporization rate follows a linear trend, and thus can be well represented by the model, the overall model prediction seems to be overestimated. The temperature profile inside the concrete is slightly over-predicted at the beginning and under-predicted at later stage of the spill. This might be an effect of the dependence of the concrete's thermal properties on the temperature or may indicate an incorrect modelling and a varying temperature of the ground surface.     

Effective method of predicting confined pressure behavior under isotropic turbulence

Explosion pressure prediction is indispensable to ensure process safety against accidental gas explosions. This work is aimed at establishing a theoretical method for predicting confined methane-air explosion pressure under isotropic turbulence. The results indicated that the pressure rise rate becomes significantly increased by the existence of isotropic turbulence, which effect on peak value of explosion pressure is negligible. Among various models of turbulent burning velocity, the calculated pressure rise rate using Chiu model, Williams model and Liu model is relatively closer to experimental value. With the increase of turbulent integral length and RMS turbulent fluctuation velocity, the pressure rise rate becomes increased continuously. The influence of adiabatic compression and isothermal compression on pressure rise rate could be ignored. To predict explosion pressure in a more accurate way, the dynamic variation of turbulent integral length and RMS turbulent fluctuation velocity should be considered in the future.