Relationship between air pollution and daily mortality in a subtropical city: Taipei, Taiwan

Air pollution has been associated with daily mortality in numerous studies over the past decade. However most of these studies were conducted in the United States and Europe with relatively few done in Asia. In the current study, the association between ambient air pollution and daily mortality in Taipei, Taiwan's largest city which has a subtropical climate was undertaken, for the period 1994-1998 using a case-crossover analysis. This design is an alternative to Poisson time series regression for studying the short-term adverse health effects of air pollution. The air pollutants examined included particulate matter (PM(10)), sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), ozone (O(3)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)), and carbon monoxide (CO). The largest observed effect, which was without statistical significance, was seen for NO(2) and CO levels on deaths due to respiratory diseases (ORs=1.013 and 1.014, respectively). The well established link between air pollution levels and daily mortality may not be as strong in cities in subtropical areas, although other factors such as differences in pollutant mix or the underlying health of the population may explain the lack of a strong association in this study. Further studies of this type in cities with varying climates and cultures are needed.     

Changing air quality in Delhi,India: determinants,trends, and policy implications

Air pollution is a major environmental problem in urban areas worldwide. Delhi, the capital city of India, is no exception to the universal pattern of deteriorating urban air quality with concentration of pollutants being well above the recommended WHO levels. The magnitude and urgency of the problem as a global environmental issue needs a systematic understanding of the potential causes of pollution and their contribution to air quality. In the present study, ambient air quality data (1987–2006) of SO₂, NO₂, SPM, and RSPM were analyzed to asses the changing air quality in the study area and to evaluate the effect of measures taken to control it. The primary data were collected from 1,583 households to examine the relationship between outdoor and indoor pollution level. Based on the data, the current study concludes that despite the implementation of different pollution-controlling measures, the pollutants, especially the particulate pollutants, were well above the standard limits set by CPCB. Integration between technological and social approach of urban planning is required to mitigate and manage urban environmental problems in sustainable manner.     

Comparative overview of indoor air quality in Antwerp, Belgium

This comprehensive study, a first in Belgium, aimed at characterizing the residential and school indoor air quality of subgroups that took part in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey and the International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Childhood [Masoli M, Fabian D, Holt S, Beasley R. Global Burden of Asthma, Medical Research Institute of New Zealand, University of Southampton; 2004.] questionnaire-based asthma and related illnesses studies. The principal aim was to perform a base-line study to assess the indoor air quality in Antwerp in terms of various gaseous and particulate pollutants. Secondly, it aimed to establish correlations between these pollutants investigated, the pollutant levels in the indoor and outdoor micro-environments, findings of the previous questionnaire-based studies and an epidemiological study which ran in conjunction with this study. Lastly, these results were compared and evaluated with current indoor and ambient guidelines in various countries This paper presents selected results on PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations and elemental C estimates as black smoke, as well as gaseous NO(2), SO(2), O(3) and BTEX concentrations of 18 residences and 27 schools. These are related to current guidelines of Flanders, Germany, Norway, China and Canada and evaluated with reference to selected similar studies. It was found that indoor sources such as tobacco smoking and carpets, the latter causing re-suspension of dust, are responsible for elevated indoor respirable particulate matter and place school children and residents at risk. Both PM2.5 and PM10 equalled or exceeded the current guidelines adopted by Flanders, noting that 12-h and 24-h PM2.5 were compared with an annual limit value. Indoor and ambient NO(2) concentrations in the school campaign were higher than the annual EU ambient norm. The other studied pollutant levels were below the current guidelines.     

Assessing concentrations and health impacts of air quality management strategies: Framework for Rapid Emissions Scenario and Health impact ESTimation (FRESH-EST)

In air quality management, reducing emissions from pollutant sources often forms the primary response to attaining air quality standards and guidelines. Despite the broad success of air quality management in the US, challenges remain. As examples: allocating emissions reductions among multiple sources is complex and can require many rounds of negotiation; health impacts associated with emissions, the ultimate driver for the standards, are not explicitly assessed; and long dispersion model run-times, which result from the increasing size and complexity of model inputs, limit the number of scenarios that can be evaluated, thus increasing the likelihood of missing an optimal strategy. A new modeling framework, called the “Framework for Rapid Emissions Scenario and Health impact ESTimation” (FRESH-EST), is presented to respond to these challenges. FRESH-EST estimates concentrations and health impacts of alternative emissions scenarios at the urban scale, providing efficient computations from emissions to health impacts at the Census block or other desired spatial scale. In addition, FRESH-EST can optimize emission reductions to meet specified environmental and health constraints, and a convenient user interface and graphical displays are provided to facilitate scenario evaluation. The new framework is demonstrated in an SO₂ non-attainment area in southeast Michigan with two optimization strategies: the first minimizes emission reductions needed to achieve a target concentration; the second minimizes concentrations while holding constant the cumulative emissions across local sources (e.g., an emissions floor). The optimized strategies match outcomes in the proposed SO₂ State Implementation Plan without the proposed stack parameter modifications or shutdowns. In addition, the lower health impacts estimated for these strategies suggest that FRESH-EST could be used to identify potentially more desirable pollution control alternatives in air quality management planning.     

Spatial variation of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen concentrations inside residences

A spatial comparison of pollutant concentrations within the residential environment is undertaken, comparing pollutant concentrations from three indoor sampling locations (zones). The indoor air quality base was obtained from sampling the indoor air of 12 residential sites and two office buildings in the metropolitan Boston area. Each residential site was monitored continuously for two weeks, and data were reduced into hourly averages. Interzonal comparisons of the mean of hourly averages, 24-h averages, and daily maximum hourly concentrations were made at all sites. Linear regressions were computed between daily maximum hourly concentrations and mean 24-h concentrations of NO, NO₂, and CO for kitchens to determine whether maximum hourly concentrations could be predicted from the 24-h concentration. These pollutants show interzonal statistical differences in residences with gas-fired cooking facilities but not in residences with electric cooking facilities. It was determined that, while one indoor sampling zone is not sufficient to specify indoor pollutant concentration maxima in residences having indoor sources of pollution, the daily mean of hourly pollutant concentrations obtained from one indoor zone can adequately describe the indoor environment. In addition, the maximum indoor hourly concentration for NO, NO₂, and CO can be estimated for residences with all electric facilities, by using the mean 24-h concentration. The reliability of similar estimates for NO, NO₂, and CO in residences with unvented gas appliances is reduced because of substantially more scatter in the paired data point, particularly at higher pollutant concentrations.     

Using air pollution based community clusters to explore air pollution health effects in children

To study respiratory health effects of long-term exposure to ambient air pollutant mixture, we observed 7058 school children 5-16 years of age living in the four Chinese cities of Lanzhou, Chongqing, Wuhan, and Guangzhou. These children were enrolled from elementary schools located in eight districts, one urban district and one suburban district in each of the above cities. Ambient levels of PM(2.5), PM(10-2.5), total suspended particles (TSP), SO(2), and NO(x) were measured in these districts from 1993 to 1996. Based on a cluster analysis of arithmetic mean concentrations of PM(2.5), PM(10-2.5), (TSP-PM(10)), SO(2), and NO(x), we classified these children into four ordinal categories of exposure to ambient air pollutant mixtures. We tested for exposure-response relationships using logistic regression models, controlling for relevant covariates. We observed monotonic, positive relationships of exposure to the pollutant mixture with prevalence rates of cough with phlegm and wheeze. Other outcomes were not associated with the exposure in a monotonic exposure-response pattern. Even so, odds ratios for cough, phlegm, bronchitis, and asthma in the higher exposure district clusters were all higher than in the lowest exposure district cluster. We found evidence that exposure to the pollutant mixtures had adverse effects on children living in the four Chinese cities.     

南昌市环境空气污染时空变化特征及影响因素研究

选取2014~2017年南昌市不同时间尺度AQI及主要空气污染物数据，利用GIS技术、神经网络分析、后向轨迹模型及地统计分析方法，分析了南昌市环境空气污染时空变化特征及影响因素。结果表明，南昌市近年来空气质量总体变化不大，空气质量等级以良为主，占全年比例为57%~61%。但首要污染物变化较大，即PM2.5比例显著下降，NO2和O3比例显著上升，PM10变化不大。南昌市空气污染季节变化显著，冬春季空气质量较差，以PM10、PM2.5污染为主，夏季空气质量最好，以O3污染为主。空气污染周变化以周末及周一污染较重、周四污染最轻，说明南昌市空气污染除了与群众出行习惯有关，还存在其他影响因素。南昌市空气质量日变化呈双峰型（9:00~11:00和20:00~22:00），主要受上、下班高峰期带来的交通尾气影响。南昌市空气污染空间变化呈典型的“郊区-市区”分布，其中AQI、PM10、PM2.5、SO2、NO2、CO值均以市区较高、郊区较低，而O3的空间分布规律正好相反，这主要与城区NOx排放较多，O3易与其迅速反应而消耗有关。后向轨迹聚类分析结果表明，来自本地的短轨迹气团占比高，对PM2.5、PM10、NO2、O3的影响大。气象因素上，PM2.5、PM10、NO2受相对湿度影响较大，O3受温度影响较大。     

Comparison of indoor and outdoor air quality at two staff quarters in Hong Kong

The indoor and outdoor air quality of two staff quarters of Hong Kong Polytechnic University at Tsim Sha Tsui East (TSTE) and Shatin (ST) were investigated. The air sampling was carried out in winter for about two months starting from January to February of 1996. Fifteen flats from each staff quarter were randomly selected for indoor/outdoor air pollutant measurements. The pollutants measured were NO_x, NO, NO₂, SO₂, CO, and O₃. The variations of pollutant concentrations between indoor and outdoor air were investigated on weekday mornings, weekday evenings, weekend mornings, and weekend evenings. All indoor/outdoor pollutant concentrations measured did not exceed the ASHRAE/NAAQS standard. The carbon monoxide concentrations indoors were systemically higher than those outdoors at the TSTE and the ST quarters, both on weekdays and Sunday, which indicates there are CO sources indoors. Except for CO, the indoor levels of other pollutants (NO_x, NO, NO₂, SO₂, and O₃) are lower than those outdoors. There was a significant correlation (P < 0.05) between indoor and outdoor concentrations for SO₂ and O₃ at both the TSTE and the ST quarters. Except for O₃, the mean concentrations of all the pollutants in the TSTE quarters, both indoor and outdoor, were higher than that of the ST quarters in all sampling periods. All indoor and outdoor O₃ levels were lower at the TSTE quarters than those at the ST quarters. The O₃ ratios of TSTE/ST were 0.72 outdoor and 0.79 indoor. This can be explained by the NO titration reaction through NO conversion to NO₂.     

北京、上海两地2004和2005年大气污染特征对比分析

为了解北京、上海两市大气污染的变化及其影响因素之间的关系,根据2004、2005年大气质量监测数据,分析了北京、上海两地大气污染特征和两地主要大气污染物的变化规律.结果表明,2004、2005年北京市的PM10最大值是最小值的63.7倍,北京市的变化幅度较上海市的变化幅度大;2004、2005年北京市的SO2最大值是最小值的46.7倍,上海市的SO2最大值是最小值的13.1倍,上海市的SO2污染的因素变化幅度较小;两市的NO2浓度都较高,且季节变化不太明显;两市NO2浓度年平均值满足国家空气质量二级标准,但质量浓度都较高,这与两市的机动车尾气污染有关;两市SO2浓度年平均值除上海市2005年外均满足国家空气质量二级标准,上海市SO2污染严重与上海市消耗大量煤炭有关,北京市SO2污染物浓度年度变化剧烈与冬季取暖烧煤有关;两市可吸入颗粒物污染比较严重,北京市PM10浓度年平均值超过国家空气质量二级标准,上海市PM10浓度年平均值达到国家空气质量二级标准.总体上上海市的大气质量要好于北京市.两地大气主要污染物随时间的变化规律与两地的污染物来源、地理、气候等条件有关.     

Respiratory hospital admissions in young children living near metal smelters,pulp mills and oil refineries in two Canadian provinces

BackgroundIndustrial plants emit air pollutants like fine particles (PM2.5), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) that may affect the health of individuals living nearby.ObjectiveTo assess the effects of community exposure to air emissions of PM2.5, SO2, and NO2 from pulp mills, oil refineries, metal smelters, on respiratory hospital admissions in young children in Quebec (QC) and British Columbia (BC), Canada.MethodsWe assessed QC, BC and pooled associations between the following estimates of exposure and hospital admissions for asthma and bronchiolitis in children aged 2–4 years for the years 2002–2010: i) Crude emission exposures at the residential postal codes of children, calculated by multiplying estimated daily emissions of PM2.5, SO2, or NO2 from all nearby (< 7.5 km) pulp mills, oil refineries, metal smelters emitting yearly ≥ 50 t and their total emissions, by the percent of the day each postal code was downwind; ii) Daily levels of these pollutants at central ambient monitoring stations nearby the industries and the children's residences.ResultsSeventy-one major industries were selected between QC and BC, with a total of 2868 cases included in our analyses. More cases were exposed to emissions from major industries in QC than in BC (e.g. 2505 admissions near SO2 industrial emitters in QC vs 334 in BC), although air pollutant levels were similar. Odds ratios (ORs) for crude refinery and smelter emissions were positive in QC but more variable in BC. For example with PM2.5 in QC, ORs were 1.13 per 0.15 t/day (95% CI: 1.00–1.27) and 1.03 (95% CI: 0.99–1.07) for refinery and smelter emissions, respectively. Pooled results of QC and BC for crude total SO2 emissions from all sources indicated a 1% increase (0–3%) in odds of hospital admissions per 1.50 t/day increase in exposure. Associations with measured pollutant levels were only seen in BC, with SO2 and NO2.ConclusionHospital admissions for wheezing diseases in young children were associated with community exposure to industrial air pollutant emissions. Future work is needed to better assess the risk of exposure to complex mixture of air pollutants from multiple industrial sources.     

Air quality management in the WHO European Region--results of a quality assurance and control programme on air quality monitoring (1994-2004)

Since the last decade the WHO Collaborating Centre for Air Quality Management and Air Pollution Control, Berlin, Germany, operates a quality assurance and control (QA/QC) programme on air quality monitoring in the WHO European Region. As main activity Intercomparison workshops have been established for air monitoring network laboratories on a regular basis to harmonise air quality measurements, analysis and calibration techniques. 36 air hygiene laboratories of public health and environmental institutions of 24 countries participated in twelve Intercomparisons between 1994 and 2004. The majority was carried out for NO, NO(2), SO(2) and O(3). The results were predominantly satisfactory for automatic methods. The results of manual methods were mainly in a good, and for several concentration levels partly very good accordance with the data obtained by the monitors.     

北京、上海两地2004和2005年大气污染特征对比分析

为了解北京、上海两市大气污染的变化及其影响因素之间的关系，根据2004、2005年大气质量监测数据，分析了北京、上海两地大气污染特征和两地主要大气污染物的变化规律。结果表明，2004、2005年北京市的PM10最大值是最小值的637倍，北京市的变化幅度较上海市的变化幅度大；2004、2005年北京市的SO2最大值是最小值的467倍，上海市的SO2最大值是最小值的131倍，上海市的SO2污染的因素变化幅度较小；两市的NO2浓度都较高，且季节变化不太明显；两市NO2浓度年平均值满足国家空气质量二级标准，但质量浓度都较高，这与两市的机动车尾气污染有关；两市SO2浓度年平均值除上海市2005年外均满足国家空气质量二级标准，上海市SO2污染严重与上海市消耗大量煤炭有关，北京市SO2污染物浓度年度变化剧烈与冬季取暖烧煤有关；两市可吸入颗粒物污染比较严重，北京市PM10浓度年平均值超过国家空气质量二级标准，上海市PM10浓度年平均值达到国家空气质量二级标准。总体上上海市的大气质量要好于北京市。两地大气主要污染物随时间的变化规律与两地的污染物来源、地理、气候等条件有关。     

Traffic-related air pollution and health co-benefits of alternative transport in Adelaide,South Australia

BackgroundMotor vehicle emissions contribute nearly a quarter of the world's energy-related greenhouse gases and cause non-negligible air pollution, primarily in urban areas. Changing people's travel behaviour towards alternative transport is an efficient approach to mitigate harmful environmental impacts caused by a large number of vehicles. Such a strategy also provides an opportunity to gain health co-benefits of improved air quality and enhanced physical activities. This study aimed at quantifying co-benefit effects of alternative transport use in Adelaide, South Australia.MethodWe made projections for a business-as-usual scenario for 2030 with alternative transport scenarios. Separate models including air pollution models and comparative risk assessment health models were developed to link alternative transport scenarios with possible environmental and health benefits.ResultsIn the study region with an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2030, by shifting 40% of vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) by passenger vehicles to alternative transport, annual average urban PM_2.5 would decline by approximately 0.4 μg/m³ compared to business-as-usual, resulting in net health benefits of an estimated 13 deaths/year prevented and 118 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) prevented per year due to improved air quality. Further health benefits would be obtained from improved physical fitness through active transport (508 deaths/year prevented, 6569 DALYs/year prevented), and changes in traffic injuries (21 deaths and, 960 DALYs prevented).ConclusionAlthough uncertainties remain, our findings suggest that significant environmental and health benefits are possible if alternative transport replaces even a relatively small portion of car trips. The results may provide assistance to various government organisations and relevant service providers and promote collaboration in policy-making, city planning and infrastructure establishment.     

Health risk assessment of emissions of dioxins and furans from a municipal waste incinerator: comparison with other emission sources

The aim of this study was to calculate the incremental lifetime-risk to dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) for the population living in the surroundings of a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI), as well as to establish the potential reduction on human health risks as a consequence of the adaptation to the EU legislation on pollutant emissions from the MSWI stack. Analytical and modelled results were obtained. PCDD/F concentrations in environmental media were determined by means of a simple-compartment-multimedia model (air-soil-vegetation model). Predicted and measured PCDD/F concentrations in soils and vegetation were compared, and the effects of MSWI emissions in the environmental media were determined. Human health risks due to PCDD/F emissions from the MSWI were also estimated based on I-TEQ measured and modelled in various environmental media. Cancer risks due to PCDD/F emissions of the plant were 1.07E-07 and 3.08E-09, before and after installation of the clean air system, respectively. On the other hand, cancer risks due to other PCDD/F emission sources in the area were 5.54E-06 and 1.86E-06. Total PCDD/F cancer risks (including those from diet) for the population living in the vicinity of the MSWI were 1.3E-04 and 4.25E-05, respectively (67.6% of reduction). Hazard ratio for total PCDD/F exposure (including diet) decreased during the last 5 years from 1.16 to 0.38. The above data show that other emission sources of PCDD/Fs also have a notable environmental impact on the area under direct influence of the MSWI.     

Road traffic noise, sensitivity, annoyance and self-reported health--a structural equation model exercise

The proposed effect of road traffic noise on hypertension and ischemic heart disease finds mixed empirical support. One problem with many studies is that the directions of the causal relationships are not identified. This is often the case when cross-sectional data and multivariate regression models are utilised. The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between road traffic noise and health. More specifically the relationships between noise complaints, noise sensitivity and subjectively reported hypertension and heart problems were investigated. 1842 respondents in Oslo, Norway were interviewed about their experience of the local environment and their subjective health complaints. The interviews were conducted as part of two surveys. Individual measures of air pollution (NO(2)) and noise (Lden) were calculated. The data were analysed using Structural Equation Models. Only sensitivity to noise is related to hypertension and chest pain. No relationships between noise exposure and health complaints were identified. Rather than noise being the causal agent leading to health problems, the results suggest that the noise-health relationships in these studies may be spurious. It is conceivable that individual vulnerability is reflected both in ill health and in being sensitive to noise. The benefit of including more contextual variables in a model of noise-health relationships is supported.     

Regional radiation risk and vulnerability assessment by integration of mathematical modelling and GIS analysis

The Kola Peninsula, Russian Arctic exceeds all other regions in the world in the number of nuclear reactors. The study was aimed at estimating possible radiation risks to the population in the Nordic countries in case of a severe accident in the Kola Peninsula. Two approaches were tested: (1) probabilistic analysis of modelled possible pathways of radionuclide transport and precipitation and (2) deterministic approach (case studies) for most possible or worst-case scenarios of modelled transport and deposition of radionuclides. For the general population, Finland is at most risk with respect to the Kola nuclear power plant (NPP) because of (a) relatively high population density or proximity to the radiation-risk sites and (b) rather high probability of an airflow trajectory there and precipitation. After considering the critical group, northern counties in Norway, Finland and Sweden appear to be most vulnerable. The case scenarios demonstrate that population in many counties in each country, both near and far away from a nuclear site, might be subject to high risk depending on the meteorological situation.     

The relationship between population and the environment and its impact on sustainable development in Egypt using a multi-equation model

The relationship between population and the environment is a significant issue due to its impact on chances for achieving sustainable development, especially in developing countries. Previous studies on this relationship have primarily focused on the impact of population growth on the environment, while the impact of the environment on population has received less attention, where most of these studies have used single-equation models (SEM) in their analysis. In order to capture the interrelationship between population growth and the environment, and both its direct and indirect effects on the potential for achieving sustainable development, SEM may not be appropriate. This paper takes a step forward in providing such empirical evidence, by developing a multi-equation model based on the recursive equation system in order to empirically examine the relationship between population growth and the environment in terms of air pollution represented by increased CO₂ emissions, health level represented by the mortality and morbidity due to air pollution, and labour productivity represented by GDP per hour worked, and using a time series data set for Egypt during the period of 1950–2010. Quantitatively, the current study finds that (1) In Egypt, a 1% increase in population raises the CO₂ emissions by 2.4%. (2) An increase in CO₂ emissions by 1% is associated with an increase in deaths due to outdoor air pollution (respiratory and cardiovascular diseases) by 2.5%. (3) Poor health due to air pollution leads to a decrease in labour productivity by 1.58%. (4) The impact of population growth on chances for sustainable development depends on how much the rise in air pollution decreases labour productivity through raising the rate of morbidity. (5) Even when rapid population growth rate plays a minor role in creating a specific problem, such as its indirect negative impact on labour productivity and thus economic growth, population management policies may still constitute a viable measure for dealing with that problem, especially with respect to policy intervention cost. The study argues that population growth in Egypt negatively affects the state’s ability to achieve sustainable development via its negative impact on the environment. Environmental degradation in turn leads to adverse effects on population, particularly with regard to public health. These negative effects on health lead to lower labour productivity, and thus hinder the state’s ability to sustain development.     

Strategic environmental assessment application for sustainable transport-related air quality policies: a case study in Hanoi City,Vietnam

Recognition has grown among policy-makers that early in the decision-making process, there is a need for an environmental assessment of the effects of the policy, plan, and program (PPP) and their alternatives. Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is widely recognized as a supporting tool that systematically integrates environmental aspects into strategic decision-making processes, thereby contributing to sustainable development. In this study, SEA was applied for an integrated assessment of environmental, social, and economic impacts of a wide range of scenarios for transport-related air quality policies to help decision-makers in identifying the most sustainable scenario with the purpose of reducing carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations from transport emissions in Hanoi City, Vietnam. In conducting SEA process, the urban air dispersion model MUAIR was used as a quantitative tool in prediction of CO concentrations. To evaluate the predicted impacts of scenarios, the SEA objectives concerning sustainability and the corresponding sustainable indicators were identified. Based on the likely significant predicted impacts on landscape, biodiversity, and health benefits, mitigation measures were proposed. These included planning in infrastructure development and implementation of public education campaign. The results of predicted and evaluated impacts of scenarios as well as proposed mitigation measures were taken into account for supporting sound decision-making that is consistent with the principles of sustainable development. Considering sustainable impacts of the scenarios, the SEA result clearly indicates that a combination of policy for public transport development and policy for installation of oxidation catalytic converter for motorcycles is the most sustainable scenario for reducing CO concentrations from transport emissions.     

Characteristics and health implications of fine and coarse particulates at roadside, urban background and rural sites in UK

Recent studies have pointed to evidence that fine particles in the air could be significant contributors to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and mortality. Epidemiologists looking at the health effects of particulate pollution need more information from various receptor locations to improve the understanding of this problem. Detailed information on temporal, spatial and size distributions of particulate pollution in urban areas is also important for air quality modellers as well as being an aid to decision and policy makers of local authorities. This paper presents a detailed analysis of temporal and seasonal variation of PM(10) and PM(2.5) levels at one urban roadside, one urban background and one rural monitoring location. Levels of PM(10), PM(2.5) and coarse fraction of particulates are compared. In addition, particulate levels are compared with NO(2) and CO concentrations. The study concludes that PM(10) and PM(2.5) are closely related at urban locations. Diurnal variation in PM(2.5)/PM(10) ratio shows the influence of vehicular emission and movement on size distribution. This ratio is higher in winter than in summer, indicating a build-up or longer residence time of finer particulates or washout due to wet weather in winter. In the second part of this study, a disease burden analysis is carried out based on the dose-response relationships recommended by the UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollution. The disease burden analysis indicates that if Marylebone Road (MR) levels of PM(10) were prevalent all over London, it will result in around 2.5% increase in death rates due to all causes. Whereas, if Bloomsbury (BB) levels were prevalent in London, which is more likely to occur as this is more representative of the urban background environment to which people in London are likely to be exposed, the corresponding increase would be around 1.7%. Considering this, in London, at Bloomsbury levels, 973 deaths and 1515 respiratory hospital admissions (RHA) are attributable to PM(10) while 2140 RHA are attributable to NO(2). After deducting the disease burden due to background levels at Rochester (RC), PM(10) emission caused by anthropogenic activities in London equates to 273 additional deaths and 410 additional RHA, while NO(2) account for additional 1205 incidences of RHA.     

Health risk assessment of indoor air pollution in Finnish ice arenas

Poor indoor air quality and epidemic carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) poisonings due to exhaust emissions from ice resurfacers have been continuously reported from enclosed ice arenas for over 30 years. The health risks in users of Finnish ice arenas were analysed in three ways: (1) evaluation of four cases of epidemic CO poisonings, (2) modelling the association between NO(2) exposure and respiratory symptoms among junior ice hockey players, and (3) estimation of the number of arena users at risk of breathing poor quality air due to non-compliance of ice arenas with recommended abatement measures. The common causes for the CO poisonings involving over 300 subjects were large emissions from propane-fuelled ice resurfacer, small arena volume, negligible ventilation, and very recent opening of the arena. Rhinitis (prevalence 18.3%) and cough (13.7%) during or after training or game were significantly associated with the estimated personal NO(2) exposure of young hockey players (n=793) to average concentrations ranging from 21 to 1176 microg/m(3) in their home arena. During a 6-year follow-up of an intensive information campaign the portion of electric resurfacers increased from 9% to 27%, and that of emission control technology on propane-fuelled resurfacers increased from 13% to 84%. The portion of inadequately ventilated arenas decreased from 34% to 25%. However, 48% of the investigated Finnish ice arenas (n=125) did not fully comply with the non-regulatory recommendations. Consequently, 20000 daily users of ice arenas were estimated to remain in 2001 at risk of breathing poor quality air. Modern small and inadequately ventilated ice arenas pose their users (mostly children and young adults) at risk of breathing poor quality air and suffering from acute adverse health effects. Governmental regulations are needed worldwide to ensure safe sports in enclosed ice arenas.