The impact of grazing on spider communities in a mesophytic calcareous dune grassland

During 1994–1995 and 1997–1998 spiders were sampled with pitfall traps in a botanically rich, mesophytic, calcareous dune grassland in Belgium. As a consequence of intensive cattle grazing, vegetation variation in a large part of the area had diminished. The study area was also patchily grazed by rabbits. Community analysis with TWINSPAN revealed five distinct spider communities. Ecological differentiation was best explained by combination of the habitat variables: distance from grazed or non-grazed vegetation,Rosa pimpinellifolia cover and grass cover in both summer and winter. Species diversity was highest in the border zone between the cattle-grazed and non cattle-grazed sites. Correlation of the most abundant spider species with the vegetation determinants explains the ecological differentiation between the spider communities. Species were classified into seven major groups that reflect the species’ habitat preferences. The group showing clear association with non cattle-grazed, tall vegetation consists of common species. Characteristic species for the intensively cattle-grazed sites are common aeronauts and rare species such asWalckenaeria stylifrons, Mastigusa arietina, Ceratinopsis romana andPardosa monticola. The latter are shown to be dependent on ungrazed vegetation for juvenile development and overwintering. Intensive grazing results in homogeneous short vegetation, which can only be colonized by ‘open ground’ species with a well-developed dispersal capacity, or by species which are not dependent on litter-rich situations for juvenile development. An extensive cattle grazing regime results in a patchy mosaic grassland where, in addition to the above mentioned groups of species, other species survive by migrating between the buffered litter rich ungrazed vegetation and the short vegetation. Additionally, some typical and rare species prefer the transition zone between the grazed and the ungrazed vegetation because they are associated with specific habitat structures or inhabiting ant-species. Nomenclature: Roberts (1987, 1995) forAraneae; van der Meijden et al. (1990) for vascular plants; Corly et al. (1981) for bryophytes; Schaminée et al. (1996) for vegetation associations.     

Grazing as a measure against grass encroachment in Dutch dry dune grassland: effects on vegetation and soil

A grazing experiment was started in 1984 and 1989 respectively, in two parts of a dune grassland in the nature reserve ‘Zwanenwater’, North Holland; a third part with similar geology and topography was used as a control area and not grazed. An evaluation of the effects of grazing on vegetation patterns, species composition, vegetation structure and humus form was made with the help of vegetation maps from 1986 and 1992 as well as field surveys. Dense tall-grass communities dominated byAmmophila arenaria increased over the period 1986–1992 in the grazed areas, and especially in the non-grazed area (increase in area to 20%, 22% and 50%, respectively). Open communities decreased in the grazed areas, but are still prevalent, while in the ungrazed area they virtually disappeared, with the result that the present percentage areas are 53%, 38% and 17%. Field survey data were classified by TWINSPAN producing four vegetation types. These occur more or less equally in grazed and ungrazed areas, albeit with different percentage areas: (1) open vegetation dominated byCorynephorus canescens; (2) open vegetation characteized, byKoeleria macrantha; (3) heathland dominated byEmpetrum nigrum; and (4) tall-grass communities dominated byAmmophila arenaria. Within a vegetation type, species composition was only marginally affected by grazing regime. Within the open communities the number of species, vegetation height, vegetation cover and soil organic horizons were not affected by grazing. In the tall-grass communities the number of species was significantly larger and the height of the vegetation significantly lower in the area grazed since 1984. In the heathland community the number of species and cover of the moss layer were significantly higher in the 1984 area and ectorganic and endorganic horizons significantly thicker in the ungrazed area. It is suggested that these effects are the result of an increased availability of light, but possibly also of a decreased stock of organic matter and nutrients, due to a decreased input of litter and accelerated rates of decomposition.     

Grazing as a measure against grass encroachment in Dutch dry dune grassland: effects on vegetation and soil

A grazing experiment was started in 1984 and 1989 respectively, in two parts of a dune grassland in the nature reserve ‘Zwanenwater’, North Holland; a third part with similar geology and topography was used as a control area and not grazed. An evaluation of the effects of grazing on vegetation patterns, species composition, vegetation structure and humus form was made with the help of vegetation maps from 1986 and 1992 as well as field surveys. Dense tall-grass communities dominated byAmmophila arenaria increased over the period 1986–1992 in the grazed areas, and especially in the non-grazed area (increase in area to 20 %, 22 % and 50 %, respectively). Open communities decreased in the grazed areas, but are still prevalent, while in the ungrazed area they virtually disappeared, with the result that the present percentage areas are 53 %, 38 % and 17 %. Field survey data were classified by TWINSPAN producing four vegetation types. These occur more or less equally in grazed and ungrazed areas, albeit with different percentage areas: (1) open vegetation dominated byCorynephorus canescens; (2) open vegetation characterized byKoeleria macrantha; (3) heathland dominated byEmpetrum nigrum; and (4) tall-grass communities dominated byAmmophila arenaria. Within a vegetation type, species composition was only marginally affected by grazing regime. Within the open communities the number of species, vegetation height, vegetation cover and soil organic horizons were not affected by grazing. In the tall-grass communities the number of species was significantly larger and the height of the vegetation significantly lower in the area grazed since 1984. In the heathland community the number of species and cover of the moss layer were significantly higher in the 1984 area and ectorganic and endorganic horizons significantly thicker in the ungrazed area. It is suggested that these effects are the result of an increased availability of light, but possibly also of a decreased stock of organic matter and nutrients, due to a decreased input of litter and accelerated rates of decomposition. Nomenclature: Van der Meijden et al. (1992) for phanerogams; Corley et al. (1981) for mosses; Grolle (1983) for hepatics.     

Effect of Vertebrate Grazing on Plant and Insect Community Structure

Abstract: We compared species diversity of plants and insects among grazed and ungrazed areas of Ponderosa pine–grassland communities in Arizona. Plant species richness was higher in two of three grassland communities that were grazed by native elk and deer and domestic cattle than in ungrazed areas inside a series of three large (approximately 40-ha) grazing exclosures. Similarly, plant species richness was higher in grazed areas relative to ungrazed areas at one of two series of smaller (approximately 25-m²) and short-term exclosure sites. Evenness of plant distribution, however, was greater inside ungrazed long-term exclosures but was reduced inside ungrazed short-term exclosures relative to grazed areas. Relative abundances of forbs, grasses, trees, and shrubs, and native and introduced plants did not differ between the long- and short-term grazing exclosures and their grazed counterparts. Relative abundances of some plant species changed when grazers were excluded, however. In contrast, insect species richness was not different between grazed and ungrazed habitats, although insect abundance increased 4- to 10-fold in ungrazed vegetation. Our results suggest that vertebrate grazing may increase plant richness, even in nutrient-poor, semi-arid grasslands, but may decrease insect abundances.     

Cattle Grazing Impacts on Annual Forbs and Vegetation Composition of Mesic Grasslands in California

Abstract:   Livestock grazing represents a major human alteration of natural disturbance regimes in grasslands throughout the world, and its impacts on plant communities have been highly debated. We investigated the impact of cattle grazing on the California coastal prairie plant community with a focus on native annual forbs, a number of which are of conservation concern. In spring 2000 and 2001, we surveyed the vegetation community composition, vegetation structure, and soil chemical parameters at 25 paired grazed and ungrazed sites over a 670-km range of the ecosystem. Native annual forb species richness and cover were higher in grazed sites, and this effect was concomitant with decreased vegetation height and litter depth. Soil properties explained less of the variation. Exotic annual grass and forb cover were higher in grazed sites. Native grass cover and species richness did not differ in grazed and ungrazed sites, but cover and species richness of native perennial forbs were higher in ungrazed sites. Our results suggest that cattle grazing may be a valuable management tool with which to conserve native annual forbs in the ecosystem we studied but that grazing differentially affects the various life-history guilds. Therefore, land managers must focus on creating a matrix of disturbance regimes to maintain the suite of species native to these mesic grasslands. The results of this and other studies highlight the importance of considering the adaptation of vegetation communities to disturbance in making recommendations for grazing management.     

Effects of Cattle Grazing on Diversity in Ephemeral Wetlands

Abstract:  Cattle are usually thought of as a threat to biodiversity. In regions threatened by exotic species invasion and lacking native wild grazers, however, cattle may produce the type of disturbance that helps maintain diverse communities. Across 72 vernal pools, I examined the effect of different grazing treatments (ungrazed, continuously grazed, wet-season grazed and dry-season grazed) on vernal-pool plant and aquatic faunal diversity in the Central Valley of California. After 3 years of treatment, ungrazed pools had 88% higher cover of exotic annual grasses and 47% lower relative cover of native species than pools grazed at historical levels (continuously grazed). Species richness of native plants declined by 25% and aquatic invertebrate richness was 28% lower in the ungrazed compared with the continuously grazed treatments. Release from grazing reduced pool inundation period by 50 to 80%, making it difficult for some vernal-pool endemic species to complete their life cycle. My results show that one should not assume livestock and ranching operations are necessarily damaging to native communities. In my central California study site, grazing helped maintain native plant and aquatic diversity in vernal pools.     

Short-term and long-term facilitation of goose grazing by livestock in the Dutch Wadden Sea area

We studied the impact of livestock grazing on the distribution ofBranta bernicla bernicla (Dark-bellied Brent goose) in the Dutch Wadden Sea during spring. It was hypothesized that livestock facilitate short-term (within-season) grazing for geese as well as long-term (over years). Therefore we measured grazing pressure by geese in salt marsh and polder areas that were either grazed (spring-grazed) or ungrazed during spring (summer-grazed). Additionally, we carried out a preference experiment with captive geese to test the preference between spring-grazed and summer-grazed polder swards. We furthermore compared patterns of use by geese between long-term ungrazed and grazed salt marshes. In May, there is a difference in grazing pressure by geese between polder pastures that are grazed or ungrazed during spring. In this month, the ungrazed polder pastures are abandoned and the geese shift to either the grazed polder pastures or to the salt marsh. Vegetation in the polder that had been spring-grazed had a lower canopy height and a higher tiller density than summer-grazed vegetation. The captive geese in the preference experiment showed a clear preference for vegetation that had been spring-grazed by sheep over ungrazed vegetation. Goose grazing pressure was negatively correlated to canopy height, both on the polder and on the salt marsh. Within the plant communities dominated byFestuca rubra andPuccinellia maritima, marshes that were intensively grazed by livestock generally had higher grazing pressure by geese than long-term ungrazed or lightly grazed salt marshes.     

Impact of cattle grazing on the occupancy of a cryptic, threatened rail

Impacts of livestock grazing in arid and semiarid environments are often concentrated in and around wetlands where animals congregate for water, cooler temperatures, and green forage. We assessed the impacts of winter-spring (November-May) cattle grazing on marsh vegetation cover and occupancy of a highly secretive marsh bird that relies on dense vegetation cover, the California Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus), in the northern Sierra Nevada foothills of California, U.S.A. Using detection-nondetection data collected during repeated call playback surveys at grazed vs. ungrazed marshes and a "random changes in occupancy" parameterization of a multi-season occupancy model, we examined relationships between occupancy and habitat covariates, while accounting for imperfect detection. Marsh vegetation cover was significantly lower at grazed marshes than at ungrazed marshes during the grazing season in 2007 but not in 2008. Winter-spring grazing had little effect on Black Rail occupancy at irrigated marshes. However, at nonirrigated marshes fed by natural springs and streams, grazed sites had lower occupancy than ungrazed sites. Black Rail occupancy was positively associated with marsh area, irrigation as a water source, and summer vegetation cover, and negatively associated with marsh isolation. Residual dry matter (RDM), a commonly used metric of grazing intensity, was significantly associated with summer marsh vegetation cover at grazed sites but not spring cover. Direct monitoring of marsh vegetation cover, particularly at natural spring- or stream-fed marshes, is recommended to prevent negative impacts to rails from overgrazing.     

Vegetation development influenced by grazing in the coastal dunes near The Hague, The Netherlands

In 1990, grazing was introduced in a section of Meijendel, a coastal sand dune system near The Hague, The Netherlands. After five years an evaluation was made of the effects of grazing on vegetation development. Three transects were established, two in grazed areas and one in an ungrazed area. Field survey data were classified by means of TWIN-SPAN, ordinated with Detrended Correspondence Analysis and the resulting vegetation types interpreted according to Westhoff & den Held (1969). All associations were found in both the grazed and the ungrazed areas, but at the subassociation and variant level some communities appeared to be restricted to the grazed area. These variants were five grassland variants characterized by disturbance indicators such asSenecio sylvaticus andCynoglossum officinale. The total number of plant species in the 19 permanent plots, which had been observed to have been decreasing since 1960, showed a considerable increase after the introduction of horses and cows in 1990. A marked decrease in the cover ofCalamagrostis epigejos andCarex arenaria since 1990 was evident, while in some plots species such asRibes rubrum andViburnum opulus increased considerably. A series of false-colour aerial photographs were used to compare vegetation structure in the three transects between 1990 and 1995. In the grazed area the tall grass vegetation had almost totally disappeared, whereas the areas of open sand. sand with moss and lichens, and low grass vegetation had increased and the pattern had become more fine-grained. In the ungrazed area the area covered by low grass vegetation had increased at the expense of the area of sand with moss and lichens and the pattern had become more coarse-grained.     

Effects of Grazing on the Demography and Growth of the Texas Tortoise

Abstract: Considerable effort has been exerted in attempts to understand the complex ecological effects of grazing. North American tortoises, by virtue of their distribution, provide a good model taxon through which to study how grazing effects vary with grazing regime, habitat, and climate. We studied the Texas tortoise (  Gopherus berlandieri ) , which is restricted primarily to privately owned rangelands of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. Management of this species is hampered by a lack of information on the effects of common land-use practices. We evaluated the effects of moderate grazing by cattle (short-duration, winter-spring rotational grazing regime; 6–28 animal-unit days/ha/year) on this tortoise by comparing two grazed and two ungrazed sites in the Western Rio Grande Plains, Texas ( U.S.A.), from April 1994 to October 1997. We made 132 captures of 106 individuals in the ungrazed pastures and 324 captures of 237 individuals in the grazed pastures. We also radiotracked 22 tortoises in the ungrazed pastures and 25 tortoises in the grazed pastures. Comparisons of relative abundance, body-size distribution, age distribution, body mass, sex ratio, adult survival, proportion of juveniles, and growth rates revealed no differences (  p > 0.05 for all parameters) between tortoises on grazed and ungrazed areas. Based on these results, we suggest that moderate grazing by cattle is not incompatible with maintenance of Texas tortoise populations. Our data were consistent with a general model of tortoise biogeography and tolerance of disturbance which suggests that Texas tortoises are tolerant to intermediate levels of disturbance. Generalities about the effect of cattle grazing on the four North American tortoises should be avoided unless they can be placed in the context of grazing regime, precipitation, habitat quality, and tortoise requirements.     

Interactive effects of rabbit grazing and environmental factors on plant species-richness on dunes of Norderney

On the German island Norderney rabbit grazing effects on vegetation, soil and microclimate were investigated with exclosures in different dune vegetation. Differences in species composition between grazed and ungrazed plots increased with grazing activity. A decline in growth height resulted in higher light availability and temperature on the grazed sites. One of the most visible effects was the decline in flowering plants. Most grazing effects varied between habitat types. Grey dunes were distinctly affected by rabbit grazing. In relation to the habitat type, life forms were differently affected: in closed vegetation, rabbit activities further open patches, resulting in more therophytes. In contrast, in open vegetation rabbit activities were too strong and following sand dynamics too high for many therophytes. In general, grazing diversified habitats, slightly supported the total species-richness, and enhanced the heterogeneity of species composition. Highest species-richness in total and of herbs was reached at intermediate levels of grazing pressure. The study is in line that highest species-diversity will be found at intermediate levels of disturbance and environmental stress and that grazing effects vary with the habitat type.     

Differences in gypsum plant communities associated with habitat fragmentation and livestock grazing.

The negative consequences of habitat fragmentation for plant communities have been documented in many regions of the world. In some fragmented habitats, livestock grazing has been proposed to be a dispersal mechanism reducing isolation between fragments. In others, grazing acts together with fragmentation in a way that increases habitat degradation. Iberian gypsum plant communities have been grazed and fragmented by agricultural practices for centuries. Although their conservation is considered a priority by the European Community, the effects of fragmentation on gypsum plant communities and the possible role of livestock grazing remain unknown. In addition, a substantial proportion of plant species growing in gypsum environments are gypsum specialists. They could be particularly affected by fragmentation, as was found for other habitat specialists (i.e., serpentine and calcareous specialists). In this study (1) we investigated the effect of fragmentation and grazing on gypsum plant community composition (species and life-forms), and (2) we tested to see if gypsum specialists were differently affected by fragmentation and grazing than habitat generalists. A vegetation survey was conducted in the largest gypsum outcrop of Europe (Middle Ebro Valley, northeast Spain). Fragmented and continuous sites in grazed and ungrazed areas were compared. Measurements related to species and composition of life-forms were contrasted first for the whole gypsum plant community and then specifically for the gypsum specialists. In the whole community, our results showed lower plant species diversity in fragmented sites, mainly due to the larger dominance of species more tolerant to fragmented habitat conditions. With livestock grazing, the plant species richness and the similarity in plant species composition between remnants was larger, suggesting that animals were acting as dispersal agents between fragments. As expected, gypsum specialists were less abundant in fragmented areas, and grazing led to the disappearance of the rare gypsum specialist Campanula fastigiata. According to our results, conservation strategies for gypsum plant communities in human-dominated landscapes should consider that fragmentation and grazing modify plant community composition affecting gypsum specialists in particular.     

Differing Effects of Cattle Grazing on Native and Alien Plants

Abstract:   Habitat managers use cattle grazing to reduce alien plant cover and promote native species in California grasslands and elsewhere in the western United States. We tested the effectiveness of grazing as a restoration method by examining the effects of herbivory on native and alien plants. At Carrizo Plain National Monument, California, we surveyed native and alien species cover in adjacent grazed and ungrazed areas. We also established experimental plots in which plants were clipped or mulch (dead biomass) was removed. In addition, we clipped plants grown in pots and plants in the field that grew with and without competitors. Native species were negatively affected by clipping in 1999, 2000, and 2001, whereas alien species were unaffected. In the experimental field plots, the European annual forb Erodium cicutarium compensated in growth and reproduction following simulated herbivory. In contrast, growth and reproduction of the native perennial bunchgrass Poa secunda were reduced 1 year after clipping. In pots, E. cicutarium overcompensated and grasses undercompensated. In the field, European grasses were unaffected by the removal of competitors. It is unclear by what mechanism E. cicutarium was able to compensate, but the ability may be related to its basal rosette growth form and indeterminately growing inflorescences. The native California grassland community assembled in the absence of grazing herds, whereas invasive European species have been exposed to grazing for centuries. It may be that these invaders have adaptations that better enable them to recover from grazing. In the grassland we studied, the strategy of livestock grazing for restoration is counterproductive. It harms native species and promotes alien plant growth.     

Rodent Communities in an Exurbanizing Southwestern Landscape (U.S.A.)

Abstract:  Ranches are being converted to exurban housing developments in the southwestern United States, with potentially significant but little-studied impacts on biological diversity. We captured rodents on 48 traplines in grasslands, mesquite savannas, and oak savannas in southeastern Arizona that were grazed by livestock, embedded in exurban housing developments, grazed and embedded in development, or neither grazed nor embedded in development. Independent of habitat or development, rodent species richness, mean rank abundance, and capture rates of all rodents combined were negatively related to presence of livestock grazing or to its effects on vegetative ground cover. Exurban development had no obvious effects on rodent variety or abundance. Results suggest southwestern exurban developments can sustain a rich assemblage of grassland and savanna rodents if housing densities are low and houses are embedded in a matrix of natural vegetation with little grazing.     

Response of Avian Communities to Historic Habitat Change in the Northern Chihuahuan Desert

Abstract: Throughout much of the northern Chihuahuan Desert, the grasslands that were widespread at the time of European settlement have been replaced by desert shrublands. Little is known about the effects of this change on avian communities. We analyzed historic U.S. Government Land Office records to assess large-scale changes in vegetation cover from the 1880s to the present day. We studied vegetation and avian communities in one grassland habitat type and four desert shrubland habitat types to examine (1) how breeding-bird communities may have changed in response to habitat conversion from grassland to desert shrubland and (2) whether breeding-bird communities differ among the four desert shrubland habitat types that compose Chihuahuan Desert scrub in this region. To estimate the characteristics of 1880s black grama (    Bouteloua eriopoda ) grassland, we focused on plots located within extensive patches of present-day black grama and compared the avian communities found there with those in desert shrubland. Species richness was higher in desert shrubland than grassland. Among the desert shrubland habitat types, species richness was consistently highest in mesquite. Avian abundance patterns differed among the four desert shrubland habitat types. At least 30% of the avian community in each habitat pair was distinct. Conversion of grassland to shrubland in south-central New Mexico has likely been accompanied by a major turnover in the avian community. Remaining tracts of black grama provide habitat for species that may be uniquely adapted to the northern Chihuahuan Desert and should be protected.     

Direct Effects of Cattle on Grassland Birds in Canada

Effects of grazing on grassland birds are generally thought to be indirect, through alteration of vegetation structure; however, livestock can also affect nest survival directly through trampling and other disturbances (e.g., livestock‐induced abandonment). We extracted data on nest fates from 18 grazing studies conducted in Canada. We used these data to assess rates of nest destruction by cattle among 9 ecoregions and between seasonal and rotational grazing systems. Overall, few nests were destroyed by cattle (average 1.5% of 9132 nests). Nest destruction was positively correlated with grazing pressure (i.e., stocking rate or grazing intensity), but nest survival was higher in more heavily grazed areas for some species. Because rates of destruction of grassland bird nests by cattle are low in Canada, management efforts to reduce such destruction may not be of ecological or economic value in Canada. Efectos Directos del Ganado sobre las Aves de Pastizales en Canadá     

Twenty years of salt marsh succession on a Dutch coastal barrier island

After a formerly grazed salt marsh was released from cattle grazing, changes in plant species composition were monitored for 20 yr, using vegetation maps and permanent plots. Three areas, differing in age and nutrient status were compared. The number of plant species and plant communities decreased.Elymus athericus (Elytrigia pungens) became dominant in most plant communities after 5–20 yr on the oldest and most productive salt marsh. In younger areas it took more time forE. athericus to become dominant. At least 7 cm of clay seemed to be a prerequisite for this plant species to increase in dominance. The results from monitoring over decades are discussed in view of the knowledge on succession over centuries as derived from a chronosequence.     

Grassland Bird Responses to Land Management in the Largest Remaining Tallgrass Prairie

Abstract: Extensive habitat loss and changing agricultural practices have caused widespread declines in grassland birds throughout North America. The Flint Hills of Kansas and Oklahoma—the largest remaining tallgrass prairie—is important for grassland bird conservation despite supporting a major cattle industry. In 2004 and 2005, we assessed the community, population, and demographic responses of grassland birds to the predominant management practices (grazing, burning, and haying) of the region, including grasslands restored under the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). We targeted 3 species at the core of this avian community: the Dickcissel (Spiza americana), Grasshopper Sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum), and Eastern Meadowlark (Sturnella magna). Bird diversity was higher in native prairie hayfields and grazed pastures than CRP fields, which were dominated by Dickcissels. Although Dickcissel density was highest in CRP, their nest success was highest and nest parasitism by Brown‐headed Cowbirds (Moluthrus ater) lowest in unburned hayfields (in 2004). Conversely, Grasshopper Sparrow density was highest in grazed pastures, but their nest success was lowest in these pastures and highest in burned hayfields, where cowbird parasitism was also lowest (in 2004). Management did not influence density and nest survival of Eastern Meadowlarks, which were uniformly low across the region. Nest success was extremely low (5–12%) for all 3 species in 2005, perhaps because of a record spring drought. Although the CRP has benefited grassland birds in agricultural landscapes, these areas may have lower habitat value in the context of native prairie. Hayfields may provide beneficial habitat for some grassland birds in the Flint Hills because they are mowed later in the breeding season than elsewhere in the Midwest. Widespread grazing and annual burning have homogenized habitat—and thus grassland‐bird responses—across the Flint Hills. Diversification of management practices could increase habitat heterogeneity and enhance the conservation potential of the Flint Hills for grassland birds.     

Impact of Grazing Intensity during Drought in an Arizona Grassland

Abstract:  The ecological benefits of changing cattle grazing practices in the western United States remain controversial, due in part to a lack of experimentation. In 1997 we initiated an experimental study of two rangeland alternatives, cattle removal and high-impact grazing, and compared grassland community responses with those with more conventional, moderate grazing practices. The study was conducted in a high-elevation, semiarid grassland near Flagstaff, Arizona (U.S.A.). We conducted annual plant surveys of modified Whittaker plots for 8 years and examined plant composition shifts among treatments and years. High-impact grazing had strong directional effects that led to a decline in perennial forb cover and an increase in annual plants, particularly the exotic cheatgrass ( Bromus tectorum L.). A twofold increase in plant cover by exotic species followed a severe drought in the sixth year of the study, and this increase was greatest in the high-impact grazing plots, where native cover declined by one-half. Cattle removal resulted in little increase in native plant cover and reduced plant species richness relative to the moderate grazing control. Our results suggest that some intermediate level of cattle grazing may maintain greater levels of native plant diversity than the alternatives of cattle removal or high-density, short-duration grazing practices. Furthermore, episodic drought interacts with cattle grazing, leading to infrequent, but biologically important shifts in plant communities. Our results demonstrate the importance of climatic variation in determining ecological effects of grazing practices, and we recommend improving conservation efforts in arid rangelands by developing management plans that anticipate this variation.     

若尔盖西部草甸的基本类型、特点及近几十年来的变化

2000年8月对若尔盖西部草地的调查，确定了该地18个草丛类型（不包括典型的沼泽植被）。经群丛间Pearson最大相关系数配合生境作图，将该地区的草地群丛分成3大类，即沼生草地，中生性草甸和旱生性草地。各群丛的SW指数，物种丰富度，地上生物量，裸地面积按照生境序列作图，显示中性草甸具有最高的物种丰富度和地上生物量。群丛C和J分别是沼生和旱生植被与中生性草甸之间的拐点式过渡类型，其物种丰富度明显比周期的群丛低，生境转换关键种分别为鹅绒委陵菜和垂穗披碱草。在草地物种组成上，杂类草占81．3％，莎草类仅占6．8％；群丛建群种方面，杂类草占61％，莎草类占28％；在次优势种方面，杂类草和禾草所占比重都有所增加。草原成分出现在丛中生至旱生的群丛中，在有些群丛中甚至成为次优势种。沼泽消退，黄河河道附近沙化以及过牧的阳坡山地生长带刺的旱生化植被，说明当地正经历着干旱化的过程，原因不仅有自然的还有人为的，特别是草地的过度使用。最后对当地草场的管理及发展提出了一些建议。图3表2参20