WATER AND ENERGY IN THE WESTERN COAL LANDS1

ABSTRACT: Problems of water quality and quantity are critical to development of the energy resources of the Western U. S. Based on a number of independent measures, the Upper Colorado River Basin will experience severe water availability problems in a few decades if projected energy and agricultural development occurs. Given the impending collision between the competing interests of various Western water users, water resource management and conservation deserves the utmost attention. Substantial opportunities for conservation exist in energy and agricultural development. Selection of both conversion and cooling technologies and careful siting decisions can sharply reduce the water requirements of energy development. Agricultural water conservation strategies include improving irrigation and cultivation practices, removing phreatophytes, removing marginal lands from production, and changing crop patterns. In order to accomplish significant conservation, however, there must be changes in those aspects of Western water law that remove conservation incentives from the water use system.     

A Comparison of Decentralized Minigrids and Dispersed Diesels for Irrigation Pumping in Sahelian Africa

A key ingredient in the expansion of agricultural output in many developing countries is the availability of reliable and cost-effective energy supplies for irrigation. Such supplies are also fundamental to any strategy to stimulate rural economic development. This paper compares the costs of water pumping through the use of commonly-used, small diesel-driven pumpsets versus a decentralized generator connected to a small electrified grid. An example representative of irrigated cropping systems found in the Senegal River Basin is used to compare costs. The results show that pumping costs from a decentralized power supply and minigrid are roughly comparable with those of direct-drive diesel pumpsets. Further, excess capacity would be available to provide power for small industries and other rural needs. In many sparsely populated rural locations where low capacity factors make central grid extension uneconomic, a minigrid with a guaranteed load of irrigation pumping can be an attractive alternative for providing power for rural development.     

COMPETING WATER USES IN THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES: VALUING DROUGHT DAMAGES1

ABSTRACT: Economic benefit functions of water resource use are estimated for all major offstream and instream uses of Colorado River water. Specific benefit estimates are developed for numerous agricultural regions, for municipal uses, and for cooling water in thermal energy generation. Economic benefits of hydropower generation are given, as are those for recreation on Colorado River reservoirs and on one free-flowing reach. Marginal and total benefit estimates for Colorado River water use are provided. The estimates presented here represent a synthesis of previous work, providing in total a comprehensive set of economic demand functions for competing uses of Colorado River water. Non-use values (e.g., benefits of preserving endangered species) are not estimated.     

WATER SUPPLY DILEMMAS OF GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE IMPERIAL VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA1

Abstract: There are four known geothermal resource areas in the Imperial Valley that have a combined potential of over 4,000 megawatts of electrical energy for 25 years. Water resources available to support geothermal enerfy development are imprted Colorado River water, agricultural waste waters, Salton Sea water, and groundwater. In addtion, geothermal power plants can produce their own cooling water from steam condensate. Nevertheless, the relatively high water requirements of geothermal facilities along with a series of real and potential constraints may cause water supply dilemmas involving both the acquistion and use of cooling water. Important constraints are institutional policies, water supply costs, technical problems, and impacts upon the Salton Sea. These constranits and related dilemmas are examined in light of relevanty information on the valley's water resources, geothermal resources and energy technologies, cooling water requrements, and water supply options.     

IMPACTS OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY ON ENERGY DEVELOPMENT1

ABSTRACT: To help meet national energy demands, interest has been focused on the coal, oil shale, and uranium deposits of the Upper Colorado River Basin. Several energy output projections for the basin have been presented based upon water availability. Inherent in all these analyses are estimates as to the rate of water use in each energy development. New energy technologies are characterized by parameters extrapolated from small scale energy facilities. The data provide projected costs, conversion efficiencies, and material inputs and outputs. Alternative techniques for process cooling and solids handling provide variable rates of water use which affect other conversion parameters. Results from a mathematical model are used in analyzing the sensitivity of an optimal energy development strategy for the Upper Colorado River Basin. The impacts of alternative water use rates are investigated in terms of net energy output, total cost, and displacements in the development strategy. Similarly, controls and regulations on energy resource development are evaluated.     

粮食安全视角下黄河流域生态保护与高质量发展

黄河流域是我国重要的生态功能区，是实现国家粮食安全的重点区域。本文梳理了近期黄河流域的相关研究，从粮食安全视角下分析了黄河流域现阶段在流域水效率、流域水管理机制、流域水生态文明三方面的问题，并提出了关于黄河流域大保护与高质量发展的两方面建议。一是创新流域水管理机制，服务国家粮食安全。积极改进水资源管理方式，加大节水宣传教育力度，加强黄河流域水土流失综合治理，合理调控水价，完善黄河流域水权市场建设。二是践行"两山"理论，提升流域水生态文明。建设"四大体系"和"七大区域"，推进生态廊道建设；转变经济发展方式；提前布局水生态文明建设。     

西洋河流域污染的特征研究

随着卢龙县工业及畜牧业的发展及人口的增加，西洋河水域污染日益严重，水质功能已达到Ⅳ类，生态环境遭到严重的破坏。西洋河流域地表污染源主要有工业企业废水、畜禽养殖污水、甘薯淀粉加工废水和农业生产废水等。本文分析了西洋河流域地表水质污染的现状，在严格排查污染源的基础上对其水质特征进行了科学分析。     

OPTIMAL WATER USE AND SALINITY CONTROL FOR ENERGY - UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN1

ABSTRACT: The Upper Colorado River Basin contains appreciable amounts of undeveloped fuel resources. Large quantities of oil shale, coal, and uranium have attracted recent economic and commercial interests. Development of these resources and subsequent conversion to alternative energy forms require an adequate supply of water. Water use for large scale energy development will place increasing demands on an already overstressed allocation of Colorado River water. Present water quality is at a concentration where increased salinity will result in economic detriments to holders of downstream water rights. The salt and water exchange in mining, processing, and spent fuel disposal processes has been incorporated as part of a two-level minimum cost linear programming algorithm. Mathematical simulation results provide an optimal use of Upper Colorado River water for levels of energy output such that salinity concentrations are maintained below predetermined levels.     

THE IMPACT OF ENERGY DEVELOPMENT JN THE TONGUE RIVER BASIN,SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA1

ABSTRACT: Southeastern Montana's Tongue River basin is experiencing rapid development of its extensive coal deposits. This development has a significant impact on the basin's hydrologic systems. Ground water flow is disrupted by mining and its quality degraded. Mine mouth conversion of the coal involves consumption of large amounts of water at the expense of downstream UBCTS, creating several water conflicts. Allocation of Tongue River water has favored agricultural users, and re-allocation is difficult.     

LAND USE AND STREAMWATER NITRATE-N DYNAMICS IN AN URBAN-RURAL FRINGE WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: Agricultural and residential activities are key non-point sources of nitrogen pollution in urban-rural fringe areas. A GIS-based watershed approach was used to compare land use indicators (septic system and animal unit densities), to streamwater nitrate-N in the Salmon River near Vancouver, B.C., Canada. The density of septic systems was used as an indicator of residential development while animal unit density was used as an indicator of the intensity of agricultural activity. Nitrate-nitrogen (nitrate-N) concentrations as high as 7.1 mg·L^?1 were found in the mid-portion of the watershed during the summer months, when streamflow is low and groundwater comprises a large proportion of water in the stream. The major aquifer supplying water to the midsection of the watershed is contaminated with nitrate-N. A comparison of the relationships between septic system and animal unit density and nitrate-N in the upstream to downstream direction provided evidence that both residential and agricultural activities contribute to elevated nitrate-N in the Salmon River mainstem. In contrast, only septic system density corresponded to the pattern of streamwater nitrate-N in Coghlan Creek, the main tributary to the Salmon River.     

A historical perspective of river basin management in the Pearl River Delta of China

Three innovations in water and soil conservancy technology in the Pearl River Delta of South China, i.e., dike building, land reclamation, and dike-pond systems, were examined from a historical perspective. They were found to best reflect local farmers' efforts to cope with the challenges of various water disasters and to build a harmonious relationship with the changed environment. These technologies were critical to the agricultural success and sustainability over the past 2000 years, and reflected local farmers' wisdom in balancing land use and environmental conservation. Imprudent use of a new agricultural technology could damage the environment, and could disturb the human-environment relationship, as evidenced by the more frequent flooding that followed inappropriate dike building and premature reclamation. It is suggested that as the urbanization and industrialization process in the delta region continues, the kind of thinking that made the water and soil conservancy sustainable needs to be incorporated into the design of similar technologies for water use and river basin management today.     

WATER CONSTRAINTS ON EMERGING ENERGY PRODUCTION1

ABSTRACT: A comprehensive nationwide recognizance-level assessment of water needs for energy development over the 1985 to 2000 time frame and options for overcoming any actual or potential water supply problems are summarized. Water requirements for energy production and other uses are totaled for each geographic region of the United States and compared with available stream flow to identify regions with potentially inadequate water supplies to meet expanding energy needs. Water quality impacts and water-related institutional factors affecting energy development are also considered. It is concluded that, if proper planning measures are not initiated, water demands for energy production will not be satisfied by the year 2000, particularly in those areas with known fossil energy resources. No unmanageable water quality problems are foreseen, and water-related institutional factors will primarily delay rather than exclud energy development.     

Effects of Flow Augmentations in the Snake River Basin on Farms Profitability1

Abstract: For over 10 years, several species of salmon have been identified as either threatened or endangered in the Snake River Basin of Idaho. The United States Bureau of Reclamation, in cooperation with the National Marine Fisheries Service, has proposed a variety of plans to increase stream flows in the Snake River Basin to facilitate movement by juvenile salmon smolts to the ocean. This research examines two of the flow augmentation plans proposed by the Bureau of Reclamation as well as two alternative plans, one founded purely on existing priority‐based water rights and another geared toward minimizing the effects of flow augmentations on farms profitability. Results from a basin‐wide model of agricultural production in the Snake River Basin, the Snake River Agricultural Model, present evidence that (1) older water rights are used towards production of less valuable crops, (2) flow augmentation scenarios have unequal effects on farms profitability across agricultural regions within the basin, and (3) irrigation water is valued from US$4 to US$59 an acre‐foot.     

Energy Supply Potentials and Needs, and the Environmental Impact of their Use in Sudan

Sudan is an agricultural country with fertile land, plenty of water resources, livestock, forestry resources, and agricultural residues. An overview of the energy situation in Sudan is introduced with reference to the end uses and regional distribution. Energy sources are divided into two main types; conventional energy (biomass, petroleum products, and electricity); and non-conventional energy (solar, wind, hydro-electricity, etc.). Sudan possesses a relatively high abundance of solar radiation, and moderate wind speeds, hydro, and biomass energy resources. The application of the new and renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major issue in future energy strategic planning and for an alternative to fossil conventional energy. Sudan is an important case study in the context of renewable energy. It has a long history of meeting its energy needs through renewables. Sudan's renewables' portfolio is broad and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates and landscapes. Like many of the African leaders in renewable energy utilization, Sudan has a well-defined commitment to continue research, development, and implementation of new technologies. Sustainable low-carbon energy scenarios for the new century emphasize the untapped potential of renewable resources. Rural areas of Sudan can benefit from this transition. The increased availability of reliable and efficient energy services stimulates new development alternatives. It is concluded that renewable, environmentally friendly, energy must be encouraged, promoted, invested, implemented, and demonstrated by full-scale plants, especially for use in the remote rural areas of Sudan.     

WATER POLICIES FOR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT1

ABSTRACF: Examination of a series of studies of the economically efficient water allocations in the Upper Colorado River, Yellowstone River, and Great Basins indicate that water is not a serious general physical constraint on the development of energy resources, so long as public institutions do not hinder the exchange of water rights in markets. Energy development will cause limited impacts on other water-using sectors, principally agriculture. There appears to be little reason to develop large-scale water storage facilities, even during periods of reduced water production. Water storage developments appear to be necessary only when institutional constraints severely restrict water rights markets and transfers.     

DECISION-MAKING PROCESS ON THE DANUBE AND THE PLATTE1

ABSTRACT: Two case studies highlighting the institutional arrangements and decision-making processes used to attempt to allocate water on large scale river systems in two countries are presented. In both cases the implementation of river plans has been blocked by conflicts between those who wish to use water for irrigation, hydropower, or municipal purposes and those who wish to maintain instream flows for fish and wildlife. To date conflict has blocked the implementation of a large hydropower scheme on the Danube River, downstream from Vienna, Austria, and the construction of municipal and agricultural projects, as well as the relicensing of an existing hydropower facility on the Platte River in Nebraska. Analysis of the decision-making processes and institutional settings of both cases led to the identification of problem areas and development of recommendations that would support the achievement of compromise solutions for management.     

Relationship of Water Quality and Pollutant Loads to Land Uses in adjoining watersheds1

ABSTRACT: The Grand and Saugeen Rivers in southern Ontario were chosen for study as pilot watersheds under the Pollution From Land Use Activities Reference Group (PLUARG) study. The pilot watersheds have adjacent headwater areas and are physically similar in geology, physiography, and climate. Significant differences in water quality between the watersheds at their outlets are attributed to land use and population differences. The major pollutant sources in the two pilot watersheds were identified as trace elements from urban runoff and point source discharges; phosphorus from agricultural and urban runoff and private waste disposal; chloride from transportation corridors; and sediment and nitrogen from agricultural runoff. Yields at the watershed outlets were similar for suspended sediment and two to three times as high in the Grand River for phosphours, nitrogen, chloride, and lead. The higher phosphorus and nitrogen levels were attributed to larger point source inputs and the higher proportion of agricultural activity, comprising 75 percent of the Grand River basin compared to 64 percent in the Saugeen River basin. Similarly, the higher chloride and lead levels were attributed to an order of magnitude larger population and three times as much urban land in the Grand River basin compared to the Saugeen River basin.     

沱江流域水资源的保护与利用

本文研究了沱江流域水资源的开发利用问题。由于流域内水资源贫乏和开发利用程度较高,枯水期中下游区无法保证水资源的需要。随着工业的发展,沱江水质污染将日趋严重致使枯水期有限的水资源变成不能使用的污水。因此,本文较详细地研究了沱江水质保护规划。在水目标、水污染控制最优方案、总量控制标准、流域水质保护区划等方面进行了探讨,文中从水量和水质两方面着手,根据系统工程原理求得解决水资源问题的最佳方案。     

常熟市农业资源的开发潜力与对策

该文就常熟市农业资源的实际出发,从改造中低产田、开发长江滩地、复耕零星废弃地、利用庭园空间、立体利用水面、开发杂草资源、加工植物蛋白饲料及发展棉田套作等8个方面的途径,评价了农业开发潜力,说明在经济发达地区的农业开发是大有可为的。文章提出了相应的实施对策。