STATE WATER QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM IN ARIZONA1

ABSTRACT: Arizona's water pollution control program is based on authorties of Arizona Revised Statutes and Public Law 92–500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. The primary areas of this program are monitoring, facility inspections, plan review, planning, discharge permits and grants for the construction of publicly-owned waste water treatment facilities. The discharge permit program deals with control of point-source discharges and is administered by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The planning and construction grants programs are administered by the State Water Quality Control Council and are implemented by the Bureau of Water Quality Control, which serves as staff to the Council. There are several challenges that face the State in this program. First is the adaptation of the “eastern law” to deal with Arizona's water quality problems. Second is to address problems caused by a long history of “laissez-faire” environmental quality management. Third is a mutual cooperation and coordination among the many entities involved in water resources management. Areas of particular interest in the State's program is the process setting water quality standards and the involvement of people of diversified backgrounds in the field of areawide planning under Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which is primarily concerned with non-point sources of water pollution.     

CONTROLLING GROUND WATER DEGRADATION IN THE TULARE LAKE BASIN1

ABSTRACT This study examined the feasibility of extending the Accelerated Salt Transport (ASTRAN) method of groud water quality control to a complex, closed basin which is experiencing ground water quality degradation from irrigated agriculture (e.g., the Tulare Lake Basin in the Southern portion of the California Central Valley). A linear programming model was constructed and parametric analysis conducted which produced results with a “general appraisal” (or “level B”) degree of accuracy. The study concluded that a drainage water export drain is required in order to implement a long-term solution but that ground water degradation can be mitigated by a combination of the ASTRAN method and other measures even with existing entitlements and legal constraints.     

UTILIZATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN RIVER BASIN STUDIES1

ABSTRACT: Remote sensing techniques have the potential for significantly reducing the level of effort in a river basin water quality study. An immediate requirement exists, however, for the formulation of the proper methodology for the application of remote sensing to this problem area. A general methodology is proposed for conduct of river basin water quality studies. The primary advantage offered by the proposed methodology is a technique for rapid evaluation of the water quality conditions of a river basin. Remote sensing techniques are a fundamental part of the methodology. The proposed methodology consists of two phases. Phase I deals with the study of the water resource characteristics of the basin as a system and identification of “critical areas.” Phase II of the methodology involves the detailed study of the critical areas by means of computerized water quality simulation models.     

MANAGEMENT MODEL FOR CONTROLLING NITRATE CONTAMINATION IN THE NEW JERSEY PINE BARRENS AQUIFER1

ABSTRACT: Land use planning in rapidly developing areas can serve as an effective tool for minimizing water quality impacts on ground water supplies. A land use management model applied to Jackson Township of the New Jersey Pine Barrens was developed. The management model consisted of a simulation model for the transport of nitrates from septic tank systems through the aquifer and a multiobjective, goal programming optimization model to determine population density restrictions using 208 areawide planning population projections. Results showed that growth may have to be curtailed in several areas of Jackson Township and that current population projections over the next 30 years may result in unacceptably high nitrate concentrations downgradient of Jackson Township. The management framework provides a flexible approach to land use planning.     

AN ANTIDEGRADATION POLICY FOR PRESERVING SURFACE WATER QUALITY IN FLORIDA1

ABSTRACT: As part of its overall system for protecting aquatic systems from unnecessary degradation, the State of Florida provides special protection for water bodies of unusual importance. Such water bodies are designated as “Outstanding Florida Waters” (OFW5). New discharges to OFWs are possible only if certain stringent criteria are met. A new point source direct discharge to an OFW is usually not allowed if it would cause any lowering of ambient water quality. A new indirect discharge (upstream from an OFW boundary) may be allowed only if it would not significantly degrade the OFW. To date, the advantages of the OFW system have clearly outweighed the disadvantages, and OFW designations are helping to protect Florida's most valuable waters from additional degradation. Florida's system could be a useful model for other jurisdictions wanting to provide special protection to special water bodies.     

WATER RESOURCES AND SOCIAL CHOICES1

ABSTRACT The problem of water resources management can be viewed as one requiring the existence and application of some type of “collective decision” mechanism. Currently, the general water resource decision problem is solved using an “individual decision” format without explicit consideration of the dominant social decision system. This paper demonstrates the need for blending technical planning activities with organized societal processes and then proposes a specific public decision framework to satisfy this requirement. The key element in this planning framework is a generalized “bargaining arena” which serves to link technical activities with the social system. Using this bargaining device we can (1) specify policy at a local level, (2) incorporate “social decision” rules into the planning process, and (3) provide local access to the decision process. A simple case of regional water quality management is used to describe the application of this planning procedure and to offer encouragement for successful use in more complex real-world cases.     

HISTORICAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL CONTEXT OF THE WESTERN WATERSHEDS MOVEMENT1

ABSTRACT: The 1990s have featured a rapid proliferation of “watershed initiatives” in the western United States and elsewhere. Watershed initiatives are ad hoc, voluntary associations typically featuring both governmental and non-governmental actors organized together to collaboratively seek new strategies for addressing water and related natural resource problems at physically relevant regional scales. These efforts are a response to historical and sociopolitical trends that have resulted in increasingly ineffective forums and processes of resource management decision-making, and that have subordinated the role of local stakeholders in problem-solving efforts. In most cases, watershed initiatives appear to provide a pragmatic vehicle for resource managers and stakeholders to address common concerns in a more efficient manner than is otherwise possible, and as such, deserve further application and continued support.     

DEFINING REGIONAL POPULATIONS OF LAKES FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY1

ABSTRACT: Topographic maps are commonly used to define populations of lakes in regional surveys of surface water quality. To illustrate the effect of different maps on that process, we compared the lakes represented on the 1:250,000-scale maps used for the Northeast Region of the Eastern Lake Survey—Phase I (ELS-I) to the lakes on a sample of large-scale maps (1:24,000 or 1:62,500). Lake areas at or near the lower limit of representation delimited “smallest-lake” values for the compared 1:250,000-scale maps. The regional median for these values was 4.5 hectares (ha) and ranged from 0.6 to 24.8 ha. Lake representation is influenced by cartographic limitations such as map scale, age, and complexity as well as the inherent variability of waterbodies (e.g., water level fluctuations or the creation of reservoirs, beaver impoundments, and oxbows). The total number of lakes on large-scale maps increased markedly as lake area decreased. Approximately 15,700 of the estimated 29,000 lakes in the EPA's Northeast Region were 1 to 4 ha in area. Because maps affect the size distribution of lakes included in a regional survey and because lake areas are thought to modify lake chemistry, maps ultimately affect the estimates of regional surface water quality.     

Energy-Related Education and Awareness: The Role and Place for Exergy in Policy Development

Abstract

Exergy can play a key role in developing appropriate and beneficial energy-related policies relating to education and awareness. Two main areas where exergy can have an impact on policies are discussed in this article: public education and awareness and student education. The former is more general, but is supported by the latter. Regarding public education and awareness about exergy, it appears that the public is often confused when it discusses energy, and needs to be better educated about exergy if energy issues and problems are to be addressed appropriately. Regarding the education of students about exergy, it appears that the coverage of exergy in thermodynamics education is often insufficient and inappropriate. Better coverage of exergy is needed to improve thermodynamics education and to make it more interesting to students, and a basic level of “exergy literacy” is needed among engineers and scientists—particularly those involved in decision making.     

Predictive model for areas with illegal landfills using logistic regression

The existence of illegal landfills is an environmental problem in most countries. However, research on this issue is scarce and limited by the availability and quality of data on the subject. Thus, most illegal landfill studies have only been conducted in a partial manner, focusing on geographical aspects or the causes of these landfills (lack of environmental awareness, inadequate waste management systems, and the role of local government). This research analyses a sample of 120 possible areas with illegal landfills in Andalusia using logistic regression in order to obtain a predictive model for the occurrence of these landfills, including both types of variables (geographical and behavioural) jointly. The results confirm that the variables that most influence the occurrence of illegal landfills are spatial (“Industrial Land”, “Plains” and “Rural Land”); whilst the variables that most reduce the likelihood of illegal landfills are those related to certain characteristics of the municipal waste management system and environmental awareness, such as “Availability of Recycling Facilities”, “Punitive Policies”, “Supervision” and “Awareness-raising Campaigns”. The model obtained shows that variables of very different nature and magnitude interact in the occurrence of illegal landfills, each of which contributes a series of features characteristic of its scale. It is advisable, therefore, to perform an analysis using a multi-scale approach in order to gain an overall understanding of the phenomenon.     

ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER QUALITY IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES1

ABSTRACT: An assessment of current and future water quality conditions in the southeastern United States has been conducted using the EPA BASINS GIS/database system. The analysis has been conducted for dissolved oxygen, total nitrate nitrogen and pH. Future streamflow conditions have been predicted for the region based on the United Kingdom Hadley Center climate model. Thus far, the analyses have been conducted at a fairly coarse spatial scale due to time and resource limitations. Two hydrologic modeling techniques have been employed in future streamflow prediction: a regional stochastic approach and the application of a physically based soil moisture model. The regional model has been applied to the entire area while the physically based model is being used at selected locations to enhance and support the stochastic model. The results of the study reveal that few basins in the southeast exhibit dissolved oxygen problems, but that several watersheds exhibit high nitrogen levels. These basins are located in regions of intense agricultural activity or in proximity to the gulf coast. In many of these areas, streamflow is projected to decline over the next 30–50 years, thus exacerbating these water quality problems.     

SYSTEM ECONOMIC RESPONSE TO WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY - FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS1

The relationship between water quantity, water quality, and system economic response to permutations of these variables on any given water use, and the allocation of water among competing uses is outlined by means of a conceptual model. The effect of the quantity-quality variable mix on a given use is called the “intensive effect,” and the allocation mix on the total system is the “extensive effect.” The elements of the model are best described by the partial sketch of the flow diagram, outlined below in terms of symbols.     

EXPERIMENTS IN IMPROVING RURAL WATER SUPPLIES1

ABSTRACT: A series of studies and experiments were conducted to identify rural water supply quality problems and to develop and demonstrate solutions. We found that rural people had severe and widespread problems, while state agencies held potential answers. Communications between experts and town officials were weak or absent. To bridge this gap, an information system was devised and tested. A computer program was developed to provide a printout map of the state, showing town boundaries and the quality of water supplies for each public water system monitored by the State Health Department. The map and data were published in local newspapers with an explanation of the map and its symbols. Town health officers were interviewed to determine the results of the public disclosure. We found that the news releases led to increased awareness, interest, and understanding of water quality and demands for ameliorative action. This program was supplemented by two publications: “A Layman's Guide to Eutrophication” and “A Handbook for Rural Water Uses.” The handbook explains the nature of drinking water standards, the reasons for these standards, the dangers and results of not meeting the standards, and cost-effective alternatives for improving water quality.     

Applying value of information methods to prioritize elements for water quality management with an example of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate in the Yodo River,Japan

Narrowing the decision space is crucial in water quality management at the meso-scale for developing countries, where a lack of data and financial budgets prevent the development of appropriate management plans and result in serious water quality degradation in many rivers. In this study, a framework for handling this task is proposed, comprising a lumped water quality model, with sensitivity and uncertainty analyses, and a management domain, including loss estimation and value of information analysis. Through a case study with linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) in the Yodo River, it is found that non-point sources and flow rate are factors that influence LAS concentration at the hot spot location. By considering the entire process of water quality management planning, we identify that the definition of the cost function of LAS treatment determines the appropriate estimation for the expected loss in reducing LAS under uncertain water quality conditions. The value of information analysis with “expected value of including uncertainty” and “expected value of perfect information” further helps estimate the benefit of including uncertainty in decision-making and the financial cost for obtaining more information regarding inputs that have been previously prioritized.     

AN EXPANDING ROLE FOR SUBARCTIC WATERSHED RESEARCH1

ABSTRACT: It is increasingly recognized that natural resources research should in many cases be broadened in scope and oriented toward more general “environmental” problems. Locales with a history of “watershed” research can be eminently suited for development of comprehensive, environmental research programs. This is recognized in many research efforts of the International Biological Program (IBP), where watershed research sites have been successfully utilized for intensive investigations of process and function of selected ecosystems or ecosystem components. In the North American Subarctic there is almost no history of “watershed” studies. Basic data on hydrometeorologic parameters such as precipitation amounts and areal and seasonal distribution of runoff are scarce; the data framework within which environmental understanding can be structured is exceedingly sketchy. Opportunity exists in the discontinuous-permafrost settings of central Alaska to begin rectifying this situation. A basic program of multi-agency, multi-discipline research and data acquisition for the most significant hydrologic subregions is being developed, based around several existing environmental research areas (chiefly the Bonanza Creek Experimental Forest, the Caribou-Poker Creeks Research Watershed, the Wickersham Dome Fire Study Area, and a series of outlying sites).     

MODELING OF WATER SUPPLY/DEMAND IN THE SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASIN, 1970–20201

ABSTRACT: The application of a water balance model in finding “solutions” to the supply/demand problem was demonstrated using the South Platte River basin as a case study. Solutions were ascertained by hand, using both “average” and “stress” supply/demand conditions, and were developed for 1980, 2000, and 2020; nonquantifiable boundary conditions were incorporated by judgement. The solution obtained for a particular set of conditions is not unique and has strong normative characteristics; thus it must be judged by various interest groups having different ethical positions. The water balance model has a tabular display format and so the “model” is merely a simple table, i.e., a “water balance table.” In this work the water balance table was displayed on an eight-foot by eight-foot color-coded magnetic board. The board provides a means to both find and display the needed supply/demand “solution.” The tabular display facilitates understanding of the systemwide solution and the formulation of value judgments. Based upon these value judgments and an initial “straw man” solution, successive negotiated solutions can be found which can minimize “conflict.”     

THE ROLE OF ADVISORY BOARDS IN A WATER MANAGEMENT AGENCY1

ABSTRACT: Since Saskatchewan assumed the responsibility for managing the Province's water resources in 1930, the importance of the Province's water resources has been recognized by assigning the responsibility for managing the resource to higher levels in the government structure. With such recognition, there tended to be an overlapping of responsibilities that resulted in undefined areas of jurisdiction and duplication of services. Also, there was no opportunity for direct public participation in the management structure. These deficiencies were recognized, and following a series of public hearings a “Cabinet Committee on Water Concerns” in 1983 concluded that the most appropriate government structure for managing the water resources of Saskatchewan would be a Crown corporation. As a result, in 1984 the Saskatchewan Water Corporation was formed and given the responsibility to manage, administer, develop, control, and protect the water and related land resources in Saskatchewan. An important aspect of this responsibility was that the corporation should initiate a process of public involvement. Thus, six “Regional Watershed Advisory Boards” were established. The Advisory Boards provide the Corporation with a linkage to the general public by providing advice, participating in policy revision and development, and assisting Corporation staff in other related water management activities.     

POLLUTANT RUNOFF MODELS: SELECTION AND USE IN DECISION MAKING1

Models for pollutant runoff can be useful in water quality management planning if appropriately structured for the problem at hand. Accordingly, a “top-down” approach is proposed for the examination of extant pollutant runoff models. The approach consists of the identification of objectives and attributes that reflect the needs of planners and decision makers when these models are used for water quality management planning. Ideally, the attributes should concern the effect of model information on improved decision making and the cost of model application. Practical difficulties with the first attribute necessitates substitution of surrogate attributes reflecting model appropriateness, resolution, and uncertainty. Common pollutant runoff models, in particular export coefficients and hydrology-driven simulation models, are found to have serious weaknesses on some of the attribute scales. The “top-down” approach leads to a set of desirable pollutant runoff model attributes; alternate modeling techniques are thus examined in order to identify promising future directions for model development. The focus of this examination is phosphorus, due to its importance in the eutrophication of surface waters. Models for both sediment-attached and dissolved phosphorus are considered. Among the conclusions is the belief that the partial contributing area concept can yield an effective yet simple simulation despite the variable and complex nature of runoff.     

ASSESSMENT ANALYSIS FOR WATER SUPPLY ALTERNATIVES1

ABSTRACT Providing adequate water supplies of good quality is becoming a serious problem in many areas of the United States. Some of the alternatives proposed for meeting the growing shortage of clean-water or cheap-water are reallocation, reuse, and importation. This paper outlines a methodology to assess all of these water supply alternatives by examining the amount and time-staging for development of water sources. In conceptualizing the problem, sources of supply are classified in three categories: primary or base supplies, secondary or effluent supplies, and supplementary or imported supplies. A model of the water system is formulated as a “transportation problem” in linear programming depicting the possible sources of supply which can be used to satisfy the requirements of various water users. The optimizing objective in the model is to minimize the cost of water under various assumptions for operating the system. A case study of the Salt Lake Qty, Utah, area is used to illustrate the application of the model in obtaining optimal water supply allocations for projected future demands. Assessment of alternatives in the study include redistribution of supplies, time-staging of supplies and related treatment facilities, and sensitivity of allocations to changes in costs.