WATER QUALITY TRAP EFFICIENCY OF STORM WATER MANAGEMENT BASINS1

ABSTRACT: While the quality of rivers has received much attention, the degradation of small streams in upland areas of watersheds has only recently been recognized as a major problem. A major cause of the problem is increases in nonpoint source pollution that accompany urban expansion. A case study is used to examine the potential for storm water detention as a means of controlling water quality in streams of small watersheds. The storm water management basin, which is frequently used to control increases in discharge rates, can also be used to reduce the level of pollutants in inflow to receiving streams. Data collected on a 148-acre site in Maryland shows that a detention basin can trap as much as 98 percent of the pollutant in the inflow. For the 11 water quality parameters, most showed reductions of at least 60 percent, depending on storm characteristics.     

EFFECT OF THE PAPER INDUSTRY ON WATER QUALITY OF THE LOWER FOX RIVER1

ABSTRACT: The Lower Fox River, Wisconsin, hosts the densest concentration of paper mills in the US., with 18 located along a 4Gde stretch between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay, Lake Michigan. Some of these companies use only primary, others also secondary, waste treatment techniques. Comparison of the quantities of wastes discharged with the legal limits indicates that all plants discharge only 40-50 percent or less of the allowable suspended solids; most discharge < 50 percent of the allowable BOD. This is equal or better than the performance of paper companies elsewhere in the state. Reductions in pollutant discharges have corresponded to improved water quality, though too much BOD is still discharged to be adequately assimilated by the Fox River. The relatively low current level of discharges means permit levels would have to be drastically cut to make any significant impact on water quality. Only a few companies might be seriously affected by such changes. Flow and temperature related permits would likely be more effective, but more difficult to comply with for the industry. Toxic substances are also a potential problem, particularly chlororganic compounds that can form in situ from the chlorine frequently used for pulp bleaching.     

SIZING OF SURFACE WATER RUNOFF DETENTION PONDS FOR WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT1

ABSTRACT: Historically, storm water management programs and criteria have focused on quantity issues related to flooding and drainage system design. Traditional designs were based on large rainfall‐runoff events such as those having two‐year to 100‐year return periods. While these are key criteria for management and control of peak flows, detention basin designs based on these criteria may not provide optimal quality treatment of storm runoff. As evidenced by studies performed by numerous public and private organizations, the water quality impacts of storm water runoff are primarily a function of more frequent rainfall‐runoff events rather than the less frequent events that cause peak flooding. Prior to this study there had been no detailed investigations to characterize the variability of the more frequent rainfall events on Guam. Also, there was a need to develop some criteria that could be applied by designers, developers, and agency officials in order to reduce the impact of storm water runoff on the receiving bodies. The objectives of this paper were three‐fold: (1) characterize the hourly rainfall events with respect to volume, frequency, duration, and the time between storm events; (2) evaluate the rainfall‐runoff characteristics with respect to capture volume for water quality treatment; and (3) prepare criteria for sizing and designing of storm water quality management facilities. The rainfall characterization studies have provided insight into the characteristics of rainstorms that are likely to produce non‐point source pollution in storm water runoff. By far the most significant fmdings are the development of a series of design curves that can be used in the actual sizing of storm water detention and treatment facilities. If applied correctly, these design curves could lead to a reduction of non‐point source pollution to Guam's streams, estuaries, and coastal environments.     

STATE WATER QUALITY CONTROL PROGRAM IN ARIZONA1

ABSTRACT: Arizona's water pollution control program is based on authorties of Arizona Revised Statutes and Public Law 92–500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. The primary areas of this program are monitoring, facility inspections, plan review, planning, discharge permits and grants for the construction of publicly-owned waste water treatment facilities. The discharge permit program deals with control of point-source discharges and is administered by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The planning and construction grants programs are administered by the State Water Quality Control Council and are implemented by the Bureau of Water Quality Control, which serves as staff to the Council. There are several challenges that face the State in this program. First is the adaptation of the “eastern law” to deal with Arizona's water quality problems. Second is to address problems caused by a long history of “laissez-faire” environmental quality management. Third is a mutual cooperation and coordination among the many entities involved in water resources management. Areas of particular interest in the State's program is the process setting water quality standards and the involvement of people of diversified backgrounds in the field of areawide planning under Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which is primarily concerned with non-point sources of water pollution.     

Multiple Interactive Pollutants in Water Quality Trading

Efficient environmental management calls for the consideration of multiple pollutants, for which two main types of transferable discharge permit (TDP) program have been described: separate permits that manage each pollutant individually in separate markets, with each permit based on the quantity of the pollutant or its environmental effects, and weighted-sum permits that aggregate several pollutants as a single commodity to be traded in a single market. In this paper, we perform a mathematical analysis of TDP programs for multiple pollutants that jointly affect the environment (i.e., interactive pollutants) and demonstrate the practicality of this approach for cost-efficient maintenance of river water quality. For interactive pollutants, the relative weighting factors are functions of the water quality impacts, marginal damage function, and marginal treatment costs at optimality. We derive the optimal set of weighting factors required by this approach for important scenarios for multiple interactive pollutants and propose using an analytical elasticity of substitution function to estimate damage functions for these scenarios. We evaluate the applicability of this approach using a hypothetical example that considers two interactive pollutants. We compare the weighted-sum permit approach for interactive pollutants with individual permit systems and TDP programs for multiple additive pollutants. We conclude by discussing practical considerations and implementation issues that result from the application of weighted-sum permit programs.     

BENEFITS FROM WATER CONSERVATION DEPEND ON COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING1

: Substantial reductions in municipal water use are feasible without reducing the quality of life. If conservation measures are preplanned, properly engineered, and coordinated, reductions in utility bills for water, waste water, and energy are estimated at $30+per person per year. Installation of devices to reduce water use, engineering plans to prevent malfunctioning of collecting sewers, and engineered process modifications of treatment facilities must be coordinated to achieve full benefits of water conservation. Pollutant discharges to the aquatic environment are reduced in direct proportion to the reduction in water use.     

EFFECT OF WATER QUALITY STANDARDS ON FARM INCOME,RISK, AND NPS POLLUTION1

ABSTRACT: Enforceable standards play a crucial role in the design and implementation of most water quality policies. The impacts of these standards on farm income and nonpoint source (NPS) pollution can provide valuable information to develop economic policies that can improve water quality with minimal loss in income and minimal risk. This study uses an integration of nonlinear programming and a simulation model to assess the impacts of enforceable standards at technology and farm boundary levels. The results indicate that the type of pollutant regulated, enforcement type, and the level of standard had a significant impact on farm income and water quality. Choice of farm boundary standards over technology standards is dependent on the impact of the policy on other NPS pollutants, in addition to the reduction of nitrate and phosphorus pollutants. Enforcing farm boundary standards on nitrates had desirable effects on subsurface and percolate nitrogen and variance in income. Technology standards were uncertain in their effects because of the restriction on the choice of technologies available to farmers. A comparative policy analysis considering incentives, multiple impacts, transaction costs of implementation, and regional consideration is important to an effective policy design.     

NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTION OF NONPOINT SOURCE RUNOFF IN THE LAS VEGAS VALLEY1

ABSTRACT: A Geographic Information System (GIS) based non‐point source runoff model is developed for the Las Vegas Valley, Nevada, to estimate the nutrient loads during the years 2000 and 2001. The estimated nonpoint source loads are compared with current wastewater treatment facilities loads to determine the non‐point source contribution of total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), and total suspended solids (TSS) on a monthly and annual time scale. An innovative calibration procedure is used to estimate the pollutant concentrations for different land uses based on available water quality data at the outlet. Results indicate that the pollutant concentrations are higher for the Las Vegas Valley than previous published values for semi‐arid and arid regions. The total TP and TN loads from nonpoint sources are approximately 15 percent and 4 percent, respectively, of the total load to the receiving water body, Lake Mead. The TP loads during wet periods approach the permitted loads from the wastewater treatment plants that discharge into Las Vegas Wash. In addition, the GIS model is used to track pollutant loads in the stream channels for one of the subwatersheds. This is useful for planning the location of Best Management Practices to control nonpoint pollutant loads.     

A MODELING APPROACH FOR STORM WATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY CONTROL VIA DETENTION BASINS1

ABSTRACT: Storm water detention basins have historically been employed for quantity (i.e., flooding) control only. However, recently it has been suggested that these basins may also provide a practical means of storm water quality control. This paper presents the formulation of a mathematical modeling approach which may be used by professionals to simultaneously design detention basins for the dual purpose of storm water quantity and quality control. Model simulations demonstrate that for a given basin, pollutant removal increases as storm frequency increases. The importance of particle size distribution and settling velocity for net pollutant removal is illustrated, The design procedure is demonstrated, and pollutant loading diagrams for estimating pollutant removal as a function of storm size are developed.     

Regulating Industrial Stormwater: State Permits,Municipal Implementation,and a Protocol for Prioritization1

Abstract:  This research evaluated the effectiveness of regulations for stormwater pollutants originating from industrial facilities. Industrial facilities discharging stormwater are subject to General Permits implemented by state and federal agencies, which require facility operators to identify themselves and to implement pollution prevention measures. An overlying system of permits require Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System operators to identify and inspect facilities in their jurisdictions capable of discharging substantial pollutant loads into stormwater conveyances, introducing more active regulation and strategic prioritization, but with unequal implementation in different urban regions. This research evaluated the interaction between the regulations and ways in which the regulations succeed, or fail, at protecting water quality. The research evaluated potential for pollutant discharges at 136 industrial facilities in Pinellas County, Florida, using telephone interviews; off-site facility visits; and on-site facility inspections, targeting four industrial categories: wood products; stone, clay, glass, and concrete products; fabricated metal products; and electronic products. Results documented that a large proportion of facilities subject to General Permits conduct few or no activities likely to produce stormwater pollutants, indicating that the regulations’ equal treatment of all facilities may constitute overregulation. The research developed a methodology to assess facilities using intensity of industrial activities exposed to stormwater, a rational measurement that could regularize municipal agencies’ requirements and prioritize implementation toward facilities with the potential to impact receiving water quality.     

WATER QUALITY OF AN INTENSWE AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED IN QUEBEC1

ABSTRACT: . Under a watershed based approach being examined by the Quebec Ministry of Agriculture to accelerate the adoption of conservation practices, a study on the impacts of agricultural practices on the St. Esprit watershed was initiated in the fall of 1993. The water quality of this 26 km² intensive agricultural watershed was studied over an 18 month period. Water samples taken at the outlet of the watershed were analyzed for nitrate, phosphate, suspended sediment, and atrazine. Water quality data were analyzed to establish seasonal trends in pollutant concentration and load in the watercourse. Spring snowmelt was identified as a significant period of pollutant material export. All pollutant materials displayed seasonal variability in the export process. Peak pollutant concentrations were associated with high flow events. Mean observed pollutant concentrations did not exceed drinking water quality standards.     

COMPLIANCE WITH STORM WATER POLLUTION PREVENTION REGULATIONS BY THE METAL FINISHING INDUSTRY1

ABSTRACT: Federal and state storm water pollutant control regulations for industry require facilities to identify themselves and to implement appropriate controls specifically developed for each facility by its operators. Compliance is not directly observable from publicly reported information, and is believed to be low. Compliance requirements are divided into three stages: determination and notification of duty to comply; preparation of public reports and site-specific planning documents; and implementation of pollution prevention activities. Aggregate data show about 25 percent to 35 percent of metal plating facilities in California, and about 35 percent to 40 percent of facilities in the Los Angeles region, have recognized the need for first-stage compliance; the number required but failing to do so is not known. For second-stage compliance, between 77 percent and 88 percent of facilities submitted required annual reports from 1993 to 1995, while on-site water quality monitoring reports were submitted by about 60 percent of required facilities. Site investigations of ten Los Angeles area facilities showed variation in compliance with site-specific documentation and implementation requirements. Most facilities inadequately evaluated activities for potential storm water pollutants, and most prepared incomplete plans for storm water sampling and inspection procedures. Evaluation of third-stage compliance by evaluating quantitative effects of facility actions, beyond the scope of this research, is recommended.     

AN OPTIMIZATION MODEL FOR EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT OF URBAN WATER RESOURCES1

ABSTRACT: A mathematical programming model is proposed to determine economically efficient urban water resource allocation and pricing policy by maximizing the sum of the consumer and producer surplus. The optimization of this nonlinear problem is accomplished by the use of linear programming algorithm. The feasibility of using recycled water for municipal purposes is examined in a planning context. The impact of higher water quality discharge standards on pricing and allocation of water is analyzed and the attractiveness of water reuse option is demonstrated.     

Water supply,waste assimilation,and low-flow issues facing the Southeast Piedmont Interstate-85 urban archipelago

Rapidly growing cities along the Interstate-85 corridor from Atlanta, GA, to Raleigh, NC, rely on small rivers for water supply and waste assimilation. These rivers share commonalities including water supply stress during droughts, seasonally low flows for wastewater dilution, increasing drought and precipitation extremes, downstream eutrophication issues, and high regional aquatic diversity. Further challenges include rapid growth; sprawl that exacerbates water quality and infrastructure issues; water infrastructure that spans numerous counties and municipalities; and large numbers of septic systems. Holistic multi-jurisdiction cooperative water resource planning along with policy and infrastructure modifications is necessary to adapt to population growth and climate. We propose six actions to improve water infrastructure resilience: increase water-use efficiency by municipal, industrial, agricultural, and thermoelectric power sectors; adopt indirect potable reuse or closed loop systems; allow for water sharing during droughts but regulate inter-basin transfers to protect aquatic ecosystems; increase nutrient recovery and reduce discharges of carbon and nutrients in effluents; employ green infrastructure and better stormwater management to reduce nonpoint pollutant loadings and mitigate urban heat island effects; and apply the CRIDA framework to incorporate climate and hydrologic uncertainty into water planning.     

LOW-INPUT AGRICULTURE AS A GROUND WATER PROTECTION STRATEGY1

ABSTRACT: Protection of ground water quality is of considerable importance to local, state, and federal governments. This study uses a 15-year mathematical programming model to evaluate the effectiveness of low-input agriculture, under alternative policy scenarios, as a strategy to protect ground water quality in Richmond County, Virginia. The analysis considers eight policy alternatives: cost-sharing for green manures, two restrictions on atrazine applications levels, chemical taxation, a restriction on potential chemical and nitrogen levels in ground water only and in surface and ground water, and two types of land retirement programs. The CREAMS and GLEAMS models were used to estimate nitrate and chemical leaching from the crop root zone. The economic model evaluates production practices, policy constraints, and water quality given a long-term profit maximizing objective. The results indicate that low-input agriculture alone may not be an effective ground water protection strategy. The policy impacts include partial adoption of low-input practices, land retirement, and the substitution of chemicals. Only mandatory land retirement policies reduced all chemical and nutrient loadings of ground water; however, they did not promote the use of low-input agricultural practices.     

WATER AND WATER RIGHTS TRANSFERS: A NEW POLICY FOR NEBRASKA1

ABSTRACT: Nebraska has abundant supplies of high quality surface and ground water. The U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1982, declaring ground water to be an article of commerce, is widely perceived as giving neighboring states easier access to Nebraska water. Some neighboring states, particularly Colorado and Wyoming, are in water short situations. Additionally, current legal restrictions on certain types of transfers within the State could be inhibiting the “highest and best use” of Nebraska's water. Thus, in 1987 the Nebraska Legislature called for the development of a new water policy for Nebraska that would promote the economically efficient use of water, yet protect the environment as well as the rights of individuals (for example, third parties) and the public. Through an interagency study employing an extensive public involvement process, a policy to be recommended to the Legislature in 1989 emerged. The policy revises the basic definition of water rights and transfers and eliminates most of the inconsistencies in the water allocation system by treating most types of water resources, most types of water users, and most locations of use similarly in the permitting process. (The principal exception is the individual irrigator using ground water on the overlying land where overlying land is one government surveyed section; such use is not defined to be a transfer nor is a permit required.) An impact assessment would be required of most new water uses except on site uses of ground water. Compensation measures could be specified as a condition of the permit where appropriate. The permit would be issued only if the benefits of the proposed transfer clearly outweigh adverse effects that could not be avoided or effectively compensated. The policy allows for the sale or lease of “salvaged” water. It calls for the State to facilitate transfers by acting as a clearinghouse for potential buyers and sellers, and it allows the State to sponsor water projects. An annual fee to be paid by many water users, in order to provide a fund for compensation and for state sponsored water projects, was proposed. However, it met with extensive opposition. Thus, the policy recommends only that the Legislature examine potential funding programs and equitable user fees.     

NATIONAL WATER ASSESSMENT: NEEDED OR NOT?1

ABSTRACT A conceptual framework and the systematic collection of reliable information for application within the framework are the cornerstones of effective water planning. The ideal of strengthening these cornerstones was a driving force behind formation of the Water Resources Council and Council efforts, during its life, to develop the Principles and Standards and to complete two National Water Assessments. The Assessments contained voluminous data but never really became an integral component of the national water planning process. Before being disbanded in 1982, the Council solicited several appraisals of its assessment process. This paper reports one made by the university community in which experiences and opinions were obtained from 108 water research administrators and water policy experts.     

New Criteria for Sustainable Water Quality Management1

Abstract: New criteria, pollutant load of unit area (PLUA), are developed for sustainable water quality management, which not only avoids degrading water quality but also considers the equity of development between different generations. A simulation‐optimization model is established to determine PLUA, in which uses the QUAL2E model to simulate pollutant transport and formulates a linear programming model to optimize the objective of maximal loads (carrying capacity). Two watersheds, the Touchen creek and the Keya creek, both in Taiwan, are taken as case studies. The PLUA criterion is applied to several existing projects which have passed environmental impact assessment (EIA). The results show that if the Hsinchu Science‐Based Industrial Park discharges wastewater to the Touchen creek, the total pollutant discharge of 85.6 kg/day exceeds the allocated load. Consequently, a waste reduction of at least 23.4% is required. Although these existing projects have passed EIA, most of them violate the criterion of PLUA and thus contribute to continued degradation of water quality. This study suggests developing PLUA as a part of the process of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) for watershed management plans and then applying it to EIA as a criterion for new project assessment. Furthermore, if carrying capacities of all pollutant discharges and resource uses can be translated into loads per unit of area, an integrated sustainable watershed management plan can be developed.     

COST-EFFECTIVE REGULATORY OPTIONS FOR WATER QUALITY LIMITED STREAMS1

With the pressure from industries and municipalities to reduce the waste water treatment costs associated with the permit limits needed to attain the goals of the Clean Water Act, attention has turned ways of introducing flexibility into the regulations without sacrificing the water quality goals. Wisconsin is the first state to have adopted a variety of options from which dischargers may choose when meeting their water quality requirements. These options were developed for the express purpose of minimizing the costs and maximizing the flexibility of the point source water quality regulations while ensuring that permitted discharge would not violate the water quality standards. This paper presents five options that the state has made available to dischargers, as well as one the state did not adopt. The conclusion is that a mix of options can substantially increase the flexibility and reduce the costs of meeting water quality standards on effluent limited streams.     

THE ENVIRONMENTAL DISPLAY MANAGER: A TOOL FOR WATER QUALITY DATA INTEGRATION1

ABSTRACT: The Environmental Display Manager, EDM, is a development system on an IBM 3090 mainframe at the U.S. EPA National Computer Center in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. EDM provides mapping, display, analysis support, and information management capabilities to workstations located across the United States, and connected to EPA through federal, state, academic, and private communications networks. Through interactive software, EDM can quickly support analyses, create maps and graphics, and generate reports that integrate millions of pieces of environmental data. The concept of EDM is to provide easy access to environmental information, to provide automated environmental analyses and reports, and then to provide data, graphics, images, text, and documents that can be used by numerous output devices, software packages, and computers. The mapping cumponent works with an electronic version of the 54,000 7.5 minute quad sheets of the U.S. Geological Survey. The software also works with a hydrographic data base of the surface waters of the United States. With the maps, a user can look at the rivers in any state, can zoom in on a small pond, and can overlay and identify particular features such as industrial waste dischargers and factories. The hydrography allows routing for modeling programs, identification of upstream and downstream components, and linkage of environmental features associated with surface waters. Alternatively, users can query data based on latitude/longitude, city name, EPA permit number, state agency and station code, river name or number, and river cataloging unit. The maps can be overlaid with roads and environmental sites such as: municipal and industrial dischargers, Superfund sites, public drinking water supplies, water quality monitoring stations, stream gages, and city locations. Retrievals from related systems can be performed for selected sites creating graphics showing water quality trends, discharge monitoring reports, and permit discharge limits.