环境胁迫下雌雄异株植物的性别响应差异及竞争关系

雌雄异株植物是陆地生态系统的重要组成部分之一,对物种多样性的保护和维持生态系统的稳定性有着积极的作用.当前,由于人类干扰加剧导致的环境恶化严重影响了植物个体、种群、群落和生态系统的结构和功能.本文综述了国内外关于干旱、养分缺乏、重金属、盐胁迫以及全球气候变化等环境胁迫下雌雄异株植物的性别响应差异,性别竞争与促进作用,性别竞争下雌雄异株植物识别和适应机制,性别竞争与性别空间分异以及环境胁迫对性别竞争的影响等的研究进展.多数研究显示雌雄植株对环境胁迫表现出显著的性别响应差异,雄株对环境胁迫有更好的耐受性和适应能力.但是,雌雄性别竞争关系的研究还相对不足,环境胁迫下雌雄竞争规律及机制还无定论.未来应该加强多种环境胁迫交互下雌雄异株植物性别响应差异及性别竞争关系的研究.参90     

成都不同地区地钱挥发油成分的差异性

为了探究地钱(Marchantia polymorpha Linn.)挥发性成分与性别和环境的关系,采用超声辅助法提取地钱挥发油,利用气相色谱-质谱联用技术(GC-MS)分别对成都地区5个产地雌、雄株地钱挥发油成分进行差异性分析、主成分分析、聚类分析和典型相关性分析.结果显示:(1)同一产地雌雄株地钱挥发油成分的种类大体相同,均以倍半萜为主,其中氧化石竹烯的含量均为最高,其次是β-花柏烯和α-布藜烯;但不同地区地钱挥发油成分存在一定的差异;(2)雌性和雄性地钱挥发性成分之间无显著差异;(3)含量较低的二萜、三萜、脂肪酸等物质对地钱产地区分作用较大,且地理位置对地钱挥发油成分有一定的影响;(4)温度和相对湿度是对地钱的挥发性成分影响最大的环境因子,且不同环境因子对不同成分的影响程度有所不同.本研究表明地钱挥发性主要成分无性别差异,地区间差异是由于环境因子不同所致;结果可为全面、深入认识雌雄异株植物与环境的相互关系提供参考,同时也有利于更有效、合理地利用植物的次生代谢产物.(图10表4参32)     

贡嘎山高低海拔上优势杨柳科植物性别比例与繁殖特性

雌雄异株植物的性比问题一直是进化生物学的研究热点之一.为揭示杨柳科植物不同性比格局的内在机理,从繁殖投入、种群密度和传粉效率等方面对贡嘎山两个海拔高度(2 000和2 600 m)上冬瓜杨和川滇柳的性别比例与繁殖投入进行对比研究.结果显示:(1)低海拔下冬瓜杨和川滇柳雄雌性比(M/F)接近1:1平衡;而在高海拔区域出现性比失衡,即杨树偏雄(M/F=2.36,P=0.008),而柳树偏雌(M/F=0.62,P=0.033).(2)冬瓜杨和川滇柳种群密度随海拔升高均明显下降,但川滇柳密度显著高于冬瓜杨,柱头接收花粉数量亦显著高于冬瓜杨.(3)枝条水平上,杨柳的总繁殖结构生物量(花序干重+种子干重)在两个海拔上都为雌株高于雄株;相对繁殖投入在低海拔时雌株高于雄株,高海拔上冬瓜杨雌株高于雄株,而川滇柳由于叶片的补偿生长,包括更高的叶片生物量投入和光合能力,导致相对繁殖投入雌雄间无显著差异.冬瓜杨雌株繁殖投入显著高于雄株,雌株对高海拔更敏感,因而高海拔时偏雄性.川滇柳的繁殖投入在海拔间无差异,加之传粉效率较高,可能容易产生花粉管竞争,从而偏雌性.本研究发现较之低海拔,贡嘎山上杨柳科植物在高海拔上叶与繁殖结构生物量权衡关系改变容易导致性比失衡,未来需在分子水平上,结合性别决定基因、性染色体和表观遗传学等进一步深入研究.     

贡嘎山高低海拔上优势杨柳科植物性别比例与繁殖特性北大核心CSCD

雌雄异株植物的性比问题一直是进化生物学的研究热点之一.为揭示杨柳科植物不同性比格局的内在机理,从繁殖投入、种群密度和传粉效率等方面对贡嘎山两个海拔高度（2 000和2 600 m）上冬瓜杨和川滇柳的性别比例与繁殖投入进行对比研究.结果显示：（1）低海拔下冬瓜杨和川滇柳雄雌性比（M/F）接近1：1平衡;而在高海拔区域出现性比失衡,即杨树偏雄（M/F=2.36,P=0.008）,而柳树偏雌（M/F=0.62,P=0.033）.（2）冬瓜杨和川滇柳种群密度随海拔升高均明显下降,但川滇柳密度显著高于冬瓜杨,柱头接收花粉数量亦显著高于冬瓜杨.（3）枝条水平上,杨柳的总繁殖结构生物量（花序干重＋种子干重）在两个海拔上都为雌株高于雄株;相对繁殖投入在低海拔时雌株高于雄株,高海拔上冬瓜杨雌株高于雄株,而川滇柳由于叶片的补偿生长,包括更高的叶片生物量投入和光合能力,导致相对繁殖投入雌雄间无显著差异.冬瓜杨雌株繁殖投入显著高于雄株,雌株对高海拔更敏感,因而高海拔时偏雄性.川滇柳的繁殖投入在海拔间无差异,加之传粉效率较高,可能容易产生花粉管竞争,从而偏雌性.本研究发现较之低海拔,贡嘎山上杨柳科植物在高海拔上叶与繁殖结构生物量权衡关系改变容易导致性比失衡,未来需在分子水平上,结合性别决定基因、性染色体和表观遗传学等进一步深入研究.     

地钱(Marchantia polymorpha)雌雄配子体对酸雨胁迫的耐受性差异

通过长期的进化,植物可以在个体、细胞及生理生化等多个水平上对酸雨胁迫作出响应.采用不同pH的模拟酸雨胁迫处理苔藓植物地钱(Marchantia polymorpha)雌雄配子体,比较两者之间的耐受性差异.结果表明:(1)与对照(pH 6.8)相比,酸雨胁迫可对地钱造成可见伤害症状;存活率、叶绿素含量、PSII原初光能转化效率(F_v/F_m)和实际光化学量子产量(Y_(eild))均降低,而丙二醛(MDA)含量、抗氧化物酶(POD、SOD、CAT)活性、基础荧光(F_0)和非光化学淬灭系数(NPQ)均升高.(2)与对照相比,中(pH 4.0)、重度(pH 2.5)酸雨胁迫可对地钱的上述测定值造成显著影响;(3)中度酸雨胁迫下,存活率、MDA、POD、SOD、光合色素含量、F_v/F_m值、F0、NPQ值和Yeild值的变化雌雄之间均达到了显著性差异水平,其中雌性的存活率、POD、SOD、F_v/F_m值和Y_(eild)值均低于雄性.综上所述,酸雨胁迫会对地钱的植株、细胞膜系统以及光合系统造成不同程度的损伤,且雌雄配子体之间存在差异;酸雨胁迫下雄配子体抗褪绿和抗氧化的能力要高于雌配子体,表现出对酸雨胁迫更强的耐受性.本研究结果可为深入研究植物的性别生态适应以及酸雨对植被的影响提供重要的理论依据.     

退化喀斯特森林群落常见植物叶片SPAD值变异特征

叶绿素含量是植物生理生化及生态调查中的一个重要测量参数,植物叶绿素含量能灵敏地反映植物生理状态及其与环境的关系。SPAD(Soil and Plant Analyzer Development)值是反映植物叶绿素相对含量的指标,一定条件下可用SPAD值代替叶绿素含量进行植物生长环境和健康水平的评估。为探讨退化喀斯特森林不同演替群落植物叶片SPAD值变异特征及其对环境变化的响应,以陈旗小流域内退化喀斯特森林群落中的常见植物为研究对象,分别对其叶片SPAD值进行了测定分析。结果表明,(1)研究区植物叶片SPAD值在13.54~24.34之间变化,平均值为18.43。植物叶片SPAD值在稀灌草丛(16.33)、藤刺灌丛(19.65)、灌木林(20.90)、乔灌过渡林(18.18)和乔木林(17.07)等不同演替阶段植物群落之间差异显著(P0.05),而在各群落内部均较稳定,表明植物叶片SPAD值的改变一定程度上是对植物生境条件的响应。(2)研究区小果蔷薇(Rosa cymosa)、火棘(Pyracantha fortuneana)、竹叶花椒(Zanthoxylum armatum)和小叶鼠李(Rhamnus parvifolia)4种植物叶片SPAD值在物种内均较稳定,但种间差异显著(P0.05),说明树种是影响植物叶片SPAD值的重要因子。(3)研究区群落类型、物种均对植物叶片SPAD值有显著影响并产生交互作用,但植物叶片SPAD值在各群落内部均较稳定,而在不同群落之间有显著差异(P0.05),表明研究区内植物叶片SPAD值的变异受环境变化等物种以外因素的影响更大。(4)研究区植物叶片SPAD值与叶片氮含量、叶面温度及生长环境的空气温度、露点温度之间均具有极显著正相关关系(P0.01),表明其变异特征是退化喀斯特森林生态系统结构和功能退化的综合体现。     

砷中毒易感性与基因多态性的关系研究进展

无机砷是一种确认的人类致癌物,但其致癌机制至今仍不很清楚.人类的大多数肿瘤是环境与遗传因素共同作用的结果.砷中毒在不同种属(族)和个体之间存在着明显的差异,除年龄、性别、砷暴露量、营养状况等因素外,近年来研究发现,个体间砷中毒易感性的不同可能与某些基因多态性密切相关,这些基因包括谷胱苷肽-S-转移酶基因、5,10-亚甲基四氢叶酸还原酶基因、着色性干皮病D基因、髓性过氧化物酶基因、过氧化氢酶基因以及p53基因等.只有充分考虑遗传因素的作用,才能深入阐明砷中毒的机制.     

与薜荔性别相关的SRAP分子标记

薜荔植株的雌、雄性别在结果前难以通过枝叶等形态特征进行辨别.薜荔实生树定植后需3～5 a才能开花结果,而不同性别的薜荔植株有着不同的经济价值.本文将序列相关扩增多态性(SRAP)标记首次应用于植物性别鉴别研究,以期能够在薜荔苗期鉴别出个体的性别,从而提高栽培效益,缩短育种进程.实验以薜荔雌、雄植株生殖枝上当年生叶为材料,用优化的十六烷基三甲基溴化胺(CTAB)法提取其伞基因组DNA.利用SRAP标记技术对薜荔雌、雄株进行性别鉴别研究,建立了完整的PCR反应体系,扩增效果好,结果稳定可靠,可重复性强.在153个SRAP两引物和1 500个三引物中,只有引物me1-em2-em14扩增得到1条雌性多态性片段.此片段存在于试验所用材料的所有雌株中而雄株没有,将其命名为FPme1-em2-em14230.研究结果表明,SRAP标记可在薜荔分子生物学研究领域中广泛应用.     

基于红外相机技术的川金丝猴地面活动监测

川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)属猴科(Cercopithecidae)疣猴亚科(Colobinae),但与疣猴亚科大多数物种的树栖习性不同,川金丝猴在生活史过程中展现出一定的地栖性。为了解该物种下地活动的节律、行为分布和性别-年龄组成,采用红外相机技术对四川省白水河国家级自然保护区内野生川金丝猴种群的地面活动进行了长期监测。2013—2018年共建立了70个红外相机监测位点,获得86次川金丝猴地面活动的独立捕捉,涉及243只个体。分析结果显示:(1)川金丝猴会在白昼的任何时间下地活动,11:00和19:00为一天中2个下地活动的高峰时段,而17:00为低谷期;(2)夏季川金丝猴下地活动较频繁,冬季则极少;(3)60%以上的个体都在地面进行移动行为,约30%的个体在休息,取食行为仅观察到2例;(4)地面活动个体的成年猴雌雄性比为1.21∶1,成年猴与未成年猴比为4.09∶1。本研究结果表明,移动是猴群地面活动的主要行为内容,并且下地倾向在性别和年龄间存在差异,支持了川金丝猴下地的主要目的是为了穿越林冠不连续区域的假说。     

不同恢复模式对塔里木河下游物种多样性及恢复速率的影响

植被恢复是退化生态系统恢复与重建的前提。为明晰恢复模式对物种多样性及恢复速率的影响,以塔里木河下游自然恢复(NR)、沟灌模式(FUI)、漫灌模式(FLI)3种不同恢复模式下的试验区为研究对象,运用典型样地法,对比分析了3种模式群落结构与物种多样性的特征,探讨了不同恢复模式对植被恢复效果的影响。结果表明,(1)恢复后,3种模式物种的增加主要为草本物种的增加。自然恢复下,乔灌木物种数虽未增加,但胡杨(Populus euphratica)和柽柳(Tamarix ramosissima)依然居优势地位,沟灌和漫灌模式下群落盖度分别由3%和53%增加至15%和79%,密度分别由0.09plant·m~(-2)和0.89 plant·m~(-2)增加至0.63 plant·m~(-2)和43.64 plant·m~(-2),均增加显著。(2)自然恢复后物种的丰富度、Margalef、Simpson、Shannon-Weiner指数增加不显著,而沟灌和漫灌模式下增加显著。恢复后,沟灌和漫灌模式下的丰富度、Shannon-Weiner、Simpson、Jsw和Jsi指数均显著高于自然恢复。(3)恢复后,乔木的各指数在3种模式之间无显著差异,灌木的丰富度指数在沟灌和漫灌模式下显著高于自然恢复的,草本的丰富度、Shannon-Weiner和Jsw指数在漫灌模式下都显著高于沟灌模式和自然恢复的。(4)不同模式下物种恢复速率表现为漫灌模式沟灌模式自然恢复,不同生活型植物的恢复速率表现为草本灌木乔木。自然恢复模式对维持建群种在群落中的地位起到了一定促进作用,但沟灌和漫灌模式对物种多样性的恢复更加有利。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.