Beyond 'coverage'

Full integration of projects and programmes for rural water supply and sanitation has yet to take place in most developing countries, thus contributing to a situation in which long-term success in the sector has been difficult to demonstrate. It is suggested that full integration in individual countries will require reorientation of project planning procedures, and the development of a community support programme (CSP) to provide backup to communities after project completion. Ultimately, full integration of projects and programmes is an iterative process, requiring the evaluation of past efforts in the field. Experience in the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981–90) has demonstrated that coverage alone — as the de facto indicator of success — is not sufficient (particularly in rural areas). The 1990s represent a fresh chance to modify indicators for success, and to go beyond coverage by integrating projects and programmes for rural water supply and sanitation.     

How to “walk the talk”: The perspectives of sector staff on implementation of the rural water supply programme in Uganda

Many countries in sub‐Saharan Africa have adopted similar approaches to tackle the challenges of rural water supply, including community‐based management, community participation and the demand‐responsive approach. These are often combined with nationwide programmes of capacity‐building and decentralization. This paper first shows how Uganda has adopted these approaches in its rural water supply programme. Based on Government documents, we construct an organizational framework that illustrates the overall programme and outlines the roles and responsibilities which actors are expected to fulfil. Second, based on interviews with sector staff and a review of Government documents, the paper examines challenges to successfully “walk the talk”; that is, it provides insight into challenges affecting programme implementation. Among numerous difficulties, two key issues are highlighted: local political interference and the weak capacity of local governments. Concerning local political interference, local planning processes need to be reformed so that local politicians commit more strongly to improving water supply. Regarding local government capacity, the Government department responsible for the programme has established eight regional units that provide support to local governments. This promising strategy, combined with more appropriate engagement and the commitment of local politicians, should help to improve the implementation of the rural water supply programme in Uganda.     

Matching Water Supply Technology to the Needs and Resources of Developing Countries

Over the past decade the water supply and sanitation sector has seen the development of several appropriate low-cost technologies which are now being successfully introduced in many full-scale projects worldwide. The principal difficulties facing this sector relate to institutional development and project implementation strategies. This paper takes up questions of: (1) incompatibilities between the appropriate technologies and the institutions trying to implement them in the field, (2) tied-aid policies and their effect on the sector and (3) integration of the community participatory approach into government programmes. It also recommends measures for improving technology management and implementation strategies in low-income communities of the developing world.     

Women and community water supply programmes: An analysis from a socio-cultural perspective

Community water supply programmes are seen as instrumental in achieving the goal of ‘safe’ water for all. Women, a principal target group of these programmes, are to be benefited with greater convenience, enhanced socio‐cultural opportunities and better health for themselves and their families, provided through improved water facilities. Water supply programmes largely consist of three essential components, namely: technology, people and institutions. Although such programmes are intended to benefit women members of local communities, scant attention is paid to the impacts of the socio‐cultural context of the community on these programmes. This article explores the influence of social and cultural intricacies on the implementation of community water supply programmes, and assesses their effectiveness. The article offers important lessons for the design and implementation of this type of programme. It concludes that the local socio‐cultural context sets the stage for programme implementation, being a dynamic factor that determines actual access to water sources, more so than mere physical availability, which is often used as a criterion for programme performance. The article stresses the urgent need to integrate socio‐cultural factors as a fourth dimension in designing community water supply programmes, and suggests practical measures for enhancing the effectiveness of such programmes.     

Renewable energy rural electrification

During the last 20 years Mexico has been fertile ground for rural projects using renewable energy technologies. In many cases, however, sustainability aspects were either improperly handled or essentially ignored. Such was the case, for instance, with solar thermal water pumping projects, solar water desalination, and even complete 'solar towns'. Painful but important lessons were learned from such failed projects. Now, sustainability is the focal point of a current rural electrification programme with renewable energy. As of this writing, over 24000 individual home photovoltaic lighting systems have already been installed in different regions of Mexico; another 12000 systems are estimated to have been installed in rural areas as a result of private commercial activities; seven village-size hybrid systems (photovoltaic–wind and photovoltaic–wind–diesel) have also been implemented. With this, the Mexican renewable energy rural electrification programme stands among the largest programmes of its kind in the world today. The question of the programme's sustainability has been a major concern at the Electrical Research Institute of Mexico (IIE), where activities have been under way since the start to lend it technical support. The lessons learned in the process will be discussed in this article .     

Adaptive co-management and network learning in the Room for the River programme

Adaptive co-management and learning are paramount for integrated flood risk management. Relevant literature focuses on adaptation at the level of physical and societal systems. The level of projects and programmes is largely overlooked, but they comprise interventions that adapt our physical systems and they provide opportunities for learning to contribute to transitions of societal systems. This paper aims to increase understanding on how learning takes place and can be stimulated within a programme. The mixed-method case study of Room for the River, a €2.3 billion programme for flood risk management, shows that a programme can be organised using various governance arrangements to stimulate learning and be a means for adaptive co-management to deliver upon environmental objectives.     

Investment in water infrastructure: Findings from an economic analysis of a national programme

Mixed findings emerge from this ex post Cost-Benefit Analysis of a major water investment programme in Ireland. Water supply and conservation investments, where most benefits were internal, generally proved worthwhile. Wastewater investments could not be analysed fully due to lack of environmental data. Here the authors estimated the level of ‘willingness-to-pay’ that would have been required to ‘justify’ the investments. In some cases the required level seemed implausibly high, raising questions as to prioritisation of projects. The authors recommend a more systematic approach to recording environmental benefits in future investment programmes, the next likely wave being in new EU member states seeking to meet environmental standards. The EU, as likely co-funder of these investments, should require systematic recording of environmental benefits.     

Women and energy resources management

Women need access to energy resources in order to meet their basic needs for food, shelter, clean water, health care and employment and to improve their family's living conditions. Due to population growth and economic development the demand for the main energy sources in low-income rural areas, biomass, is far greater than the supply, and women have no choice but to overexploit the increasingly scarce resources just to survive. Improvements in energy efficiency and an increased use of renewable energy sources could help women to balance their immediate livelihood needs and the long-term ecological needs. However, women generally lack access to these improved energy technologies. This article explores the causes of women's limited access to improved energy technologies and why energy polices and programmes often fail to address women's specific needs and concerns. Strategies of the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) are outlined as examples of approaches aiming at improving women's access to information and sustainable technologies and promoting women's full participation in environmental decision and policy making.     

Renewable energy programmes in India

Efforts towards the development and deployment of technologies based on renewable energy sources in India are described. A brief review of renewable energy programmes with an emphasis on the specific strengths of the different programmes in the context of India's renewable energy programme is presented. Renewable energy systems which appear to have a significant role to play in the sustainable energy programme of India are identified and their implementation discussed .     

FINANCING FEDERAL WATER DEVELOPEMNT PROJECTS AND SHARING THE COSTS1

ABSTRACT: The Federal Government's interest and involvement in water resource development in discussed in the context of project financing and cost sharing. After drawing a clear distinction between the two issues - who puts up the money, and who repays over time - the authors survey a number of Federal acts from which have evolved nearly 200 separate cost-sharing rules. Selected cost sharing and financing issues discussed include consistency in policies, rehabilitation of urban water supply systems, multipurpose water quality projects, and ground water management. Two proposals for cost/finance sharing reform introduced in the 96th Congress are discussed in detail and their impacts compared with current policy. The joint venture approach (Administration proposal) results in an effective composite cost share which changes significantly but not drastically (from 19 to 35 percent non-Federal share for a hypothetical project). The block grant approach (Domenici-Moynihan proposal) would alter the regional distribution of Federal water developement funding from the South and West to the Northwest and North Central States.     

Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Practices in Drylands: How Do They Address Desertification Threats?

Managing land sustainably is a huge challenge, especially under harsh climatic conditions such as those found in drylands. The socio-economic situation can also pose challenges, as dryland regions are often characterized by remoteness, marginality, low-productive farming, weak institutions, and even conflict. With threats from climate change, disputes over water, competing claims on land, and migration increasing worldwide, the demands for sustainable land management (SLM) measures will only increase in the future. Within the EU-funded DESIRE project, researchers and stakeholders jointly identified existing SLM technologies and approaches in 17 dryland study sites located in the Mediterranean and around the world. In order to evaluate and share this valuable SLM experience, local researchers documented the SLM technologies and approaches in collaboration with land users, utilizing the internationally recognized WOCAT questionnaires. This article provides an analysis of 30 technologies and 8 approaches, enabling an initial evaluation of how SLM addresses prevalent dryland threats, such as water scarcity, soil degradation, vegetation degradation and low production, climate change, resource use conflicts, and migration. Among the impacts attributed to the documented technologies, those mentioned most were diversified and enhanced production and better management of water and soil degradation, whether through water harvesting, improving soil moisture, or reducing runoff. Favorable local-scale cost–benefit relationships were mainly found when considered over the long term. Nevertheless, SLM was found to improve people’s livelihoods and prevent further outmigration. More field research is needed to reinforce expert assessments of SLM impacts and provide the necessary evidence-based rationale for investing in SLM.     

Past and future sustainability of water policies in Europe

The article contributes to a discussion on two global issues on water: water resources management, and water supply and sanitation. Focusing on Europe, it traces the legal roots of current systems in history: as a resource, water is considered as a common property, rather than a market good; while as a public service it is usually a commodity. Public water supply and sanitation technologies and engineering have developed under three main paradigms: quantitative and civil engineering; qualitative and chemical/sanitary engineering (both on the supply side); and the most recent one, environmental engineering and integrated management (on the demand side). The cost of public drinking water is due to rise sharply in view of the two‐fold financial challenge of replacing an ageing infrastructure and keeping up with ever‐rising environmental and sanitary quality standards. Who will pay? Government subsidies, or water users? The author suggests that apparent successes with privatisation may have relied heavily on hidden government subsidies and/or the healthy state of previously installed water infrastructure: past government subsidies are still felt for as long as the lifetime of the infrastructure. The article stresses the importance of public participation and decentralized local management of water and sanitation services. Informing and involving users in water management decisions is seen as an integral part of the ‘ethics’ side of the crucial three E's (economics, environment, ethics). The article strongly argues for municipal provision of water services, and hopes that lessons learnt and solutions found in the European experience may serve water services management efforts in other regions of the world.     

Considerations of the skilled manpower needs for water supply systems

Summary This paper describes an approach to the determination of skilled manpower requirements for the water supply industry. It outlines a training programme presented in five modules: resource exploitation and distribution; meter maintenance; leak detection; electrical/mechanical equipment, and sewage systems. This training curriculum is based on a detailed analysis of what is needed in a particular country. Though the proposals are specific, in this case Turkey, the approach is general and as such will have a wide application in discussions of what types of skills are required, and what is necessary to develop the necessary capabilities of the programme.Dr Gregor Watters is a qualified engineer with a special expertise in the design and construction of water supply and sewage treatment systems. His present appointment is Regional Officer for Basic Sanitary Measures at the World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe. He has experience of projects in Nigeria, Tanzania, Iraq, Yugoslavia and Turkey.     

A Framework for Evaluating Transferable Development Rights Programmes

While theoretical aspects of transferable development rights (TDR) programmes have been explored, there is little research into programmatic elements of successful TDR programmes. The reported research systematically analyses characteristics of TDR programmes that correspond with successful programme implementation. After describing the basic elements of TDR programmes, this paper uses an iterative, case-study approach to: (1) identify and classify TDR programmatic characteristics; and (2) develop a TDR evaluative framework. This TDR evaluative framework is then used to examine three TDR programmes: Manheim Township, PA; Montgomery County, MD; and New Jersey Pinelands. A comparison of these programmes' strengths and weaknesses, and discussion of their programme elements, demonstrate the utility of the TDR evaluative framework for analysing TDR and other growth management programmes. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that a high degree of knowledge of local land use demands and patterns, programme leadership and presence of a TDR bank are important for TDR programme success.     

Establishing components of community satisfaction with recycled water use through a structural equation model

The use of recycled water is being promoted through policy in many parts of the world with the aim of achieving sustainable water management. However there are some major barriers to the success of recycled water use policies and their instruments, in particular for potable reuse schemes. One of these barriers can be a lack of community support. Despite the critical nature of community attitudes to recycled water to the success of projects, they are often little understood. Further information is required to ensure the successful implementation of recycled water policy and to ensure sustainable management of water resources is achieved. The aim of this paper is to establish the key components of community satisfaction with recycled water. This was investigated through a case study of the Mawson Lakes population in South Australia, where recycled water is used for non-potable purposes through a dual water supply system (the 'recycled water system'). This paper reports results from a survey of 162 Mawson Lakes residents. A structural equation model (SEM) was developed and tested to explain and predict components of community satisfaction with recycled water use (for non-potable use) through the dual water supply system. Results indicate the components of satisfaction with recycled water use were an individual's positive perception of: the Water Authority's communication, trust in the Water Authority, fairness in the recycled water system's implementation, quality of the recycled water, financial value of the recycled water system, and risk associated with recycled water use (negative relationship). The results of this study have positive implications for the future management and implementation of recycled water projects in particular through dual water supply systems. The results indicate to water authorities and water policy developers guiding principles for community consultation with regards to the management of recycled water projects.     

Analysis of optimal recycling policy in a market economy

Recycling is still in its relative infancy in many Western societies, although recycling programmes have grown considerably in recent years and different programmes have evolved. This paper applies straightforward analytical techniques to demonstrate ways to achieve an optimal recycling programme – a policy that would result in a longer-term cost-efficient programme which would be beneficial in overall resource and environmental management .     

Community‐based water supplies in Cikarang,Indonesia: are they sustainable?

Community‐based water supply (CBWS) is an example of how a community manages common pool resources (CPR). This results in an alternative approach to solve water supply problems in developing countries by enhancing community participation in managing water supply. This research evaluates the sustainability of five CBWS projects in Cikarang, Indonesia by using Ostrom's design principles, with additional sustainability factors found in the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) on drinking water and groundwater sustainability. Quinn et al. (2007) criteria were used in the analysis, and the results show that the management of four CBWS institutions were absent and one CBWS institution was weak. With regards to the SDG's drinking water target, the CBWS institutions were unable to comply with safe water standards, and in terms of groundwater sustainability, efforts to monitor and sustain groundwater tables were absent. Results from this research suggest that more focus must be placed on water quality and groundwater sustainability for CBWS projects.     

Institutional Aspects of Water Supply and Sanitation in Africa

The provision of water supply and sanitation services requires a judicious balance of technological, organizational, managerial and legal measures. National policies should be spelled out and embodied in national sectoral planning, produced under the direction of a co-ordinating central body. Implementation agencies should follow the plan and directives laid down by the sectoral plan. Planning criteria for programme and project assessment should emphasize the need to consider different alternatives for augmentation of available water supplies. Sectoral planning and organization of executing agencies must take into account the active participation and support of users. Operation and maintenance can be improved through appropriate monitoring, rehabilitation and special training. Adequate operation, maintenance and rehabilitation will reduce investment needs. Legal rules should be precise, flexible and objective-orientated. Properly designed education campaigns are the most cost-effective alternative for improving drinking-water supply and sanitation programmes.     

WATER SUPPLY COSTS FOR SMALL PRIVATE UTILITIES1

ABSTRACT: This paper examines the cost of water supply for small and mid-sized private water utilities. An econometric approach was employed in which data on utility costs and characteristics were used to estimate a total water supply cost function from which average and marginal costs were derived. The results suggest that although average and marginal costs decline with output, the rate of decline rapidly approaches zero, and unit costs therefore appear to remain relatively constant over a wide range of output. Implications of the results for pricing policy are examined.     

THE UNITED NATIONS GROUND WATER EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME - A FIFTEEN YEAR PERSPECTIVE

The United Nations ground water exploration and development programme during 15 years of active life, has resulted in substantial socio-economic benefits to 57 developing countries through some 100 ground water projects. Systematic study, development and use of this important resource have contributed to intensification of agricultural production through supplemental irrigation from ground water; alleviation of water shortages in urban and industrial areas through construction of supply wells; improvement and stabilization of pastoral and rural economies, thereby counteracting in some measure adverse demographic trends of migration to the cities; and other related benefits in training, institutional development, and development of national water policies and plans.