Chemical and microbial characteristics of municipal drinking water supply systems in the Canadian Arctic

Drinking water in the vast Arctic Canadian territory of Nunavut is sourced from surface water lakes or rivers and transferred to man-made or natural reservoirs. The raw water is at a minimum treated by chlorination and distributed to customers either by trucks delivering to a water storage tank inside buildings or through a piped distribution system. The objective of this study was to characterize the chemical and microbial drinking water quality from source to tap in three hamlets (Coral Harbour, Pond Inlet and Pangnirtung—each has a population of <2000) on trucked service, and in Iqaluit (population ~6700), which uses a combination of trucked and piped water conveyance. Generally, the source and drinking water was of satisfactory microbial quality, containing Escherichia coli levels of <1 MPN/100 mL with a few exceptions, and selected pathogenic bacteria and parasites were below detection limits using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) methods. Tap water in households receiving trucked water contained less than the recommended 0.2 mg/L of free chlorine, while piped drinking water in Iqaluit complied with Health Canada guidelines for residual chlorine (i.e. >0.2 mg/L free chlorine). Some buildings in the four communities contained manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and/or lead (Pb) concentrations above Health Canada guideline values for the aesthetic (Mn, Cu and Fe) and health (Pb) objectives. Corrosion of components of the drinking water distribution system (household storage tanks, premise plumbing) could be contributing to Pb, Cu and Fe levels, as the source water in three of the four communities had low alkalinity. The results point to the need for robust disinfection, which may include secondary disinfection or point-of-use disinfection, to prevent microbial risks in drinking water tanks in buildings and ultimately at the tap.     

Applicability of energy-positive net-zero water management in Alaska: technology status and case study

Challenges of water and wastewater management in Alaska include the potential need for above-grade and freeze-protected piping, high unit energy costs and, in many rural areas, low population density and median annual income. However, recently developed net-zero water (NZW), i.e., nearly closed-loop, direct potable water reuse systems, can retain the thermal energy in municipal wastewater, producing warm treated potable water without the need for substantial water re-heating, heat pumping or transfer, or additional energy conversion. Consequently, these systems are projected to be capable of saving more energy than they use in water treatment and conveyance, in the temperate USA. In this paper, NZW technology is reviewed in terms of potential applicability in Alaska by performing a hypothetical case study for the city of Fairbanks, Alaska. Results of this paper study indicate that in municipalities of Alaska with local engineering and road access, the use of NZW systems may provide an energy-efficient water service option. In particular, case study modeling suggests hot water energy savings are equivalent to five times the energy used for treatment, much greater savings than in mid-latitudes, due largely to the substantially higher energy needed for heating water from a conventional treatment system and lack of need for freeze-protected piping. Further study of the applicability of NZW technology in cold regions, with expanded evaluation in terms of system-wide lifecycle cost, is recommended.     

Evaluation of Multi-level Social Learning for Sustainable Landscapes: Perspective of a Development Initiative in Bergslagen, Sweden

To implement policies about sustainable landscapes and rural development necessitates social learning about states and trends of sustainability indicators, norms that define sustainability, and adaptive multi-level governance. We evaluate the extent to which social learning at multiple governance levels for sustainable landscapes occur in 18 local development initiatives in the network of Sustainable Bergslagen in Sweden. We mapped activities over time, and interviewed key actors in the network about social learning. While activities resulted in exchange of experiences and some local solutions, a major challenge was to secure systematic social learning and make new knowledge explicit at multiple levels. None of the development initiatives used a systematic approach to secure social learning, and sustainability assessments were not made systematically. We discuss how social learning can be improved, and how a learning network of development initiatives could be realized.     

Assessing the perceived impact of exploration and production of hydrocarbons on households perspective of environmental regulation in Ghana

This paper seeks to critically study the perceived impacts of the exploration of hydrocarbons in selected coastal communities in the Western region, the oil and gas industry benefits to local communities, and to determine whether hydrocarbon development is a means for sustainable development. The study uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches using a questionnaire survey, key informant interview, and focus group discussion tools to understand the impact of oil and gas exploration and production in selected affected communities along the coast of Ghana. The activities of oil production and exploration impact negatively on communities; it also leads to a sharp increase in food prices thereby increasing their costs of living. The activity has also caused a decline in fish catch levels which happens to be the main economic activity as a result of exclusion zones created by oil companies which limited the extent fishermen can go fishing. In terms of infrastructure, the three communities are lacking, 77% of respondents from Princess Town hold the view that there is no motorable road linking their community in the next town and 60% from Aketakyi also hold the same view. Infrastructure such as roads, schools, water provision, and clinics are woefully provided in these communities.

     

Models to Estimate Volatile Organic Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from Municipal Sewer Systems

Abstract

Emissions from municipal sewers are usually omitted from hazardous air pollutant (HAP) emission inventories. This omission may result from a lack of appreciation for the potential emission impact and/or from inadequate emission estimation procedures. This paper presents an analysis and comparison of the models available to estimate volatile organic HAP (VOHAP) emissions from sewers. Comparisons were made between the different theoretical foundations of the models, as well as between the emissions predicted by the models for a single sewer component. Sewer gas concentrations predicted by the models were also compared to measured sewer gas concentrations reported in the literature. Two of the models were compared in their ability to estimate sewer VOHAP emissions for a large U. S. city using National Pollution Discharge Effluent System data for the influent wastewater to the city's municipal wastewater treatment facilities. This estimate showed that, regardless of the model used, sewer emissions are a potentially significant source of VOHAP emissions in the urban environment. The choice of model, however, is thought to be less critical to sewer emission estimates than the source of sewer wastewater VOHAP concentration data.     

Towards a Tipping Point in Responding to Change: Rising Costs,Fewer Options for Arctic and Global Societies

Climate change incurs costs, but government adaptation budgets are limited. Beyond a certain point, individuals must bear the costs or adapt to new circumstances, creating political-economic tipping points that we explore in three examples. First, many Alaska Native villages are threatened by erosion, but relocation is expensive. To date, critically threatened villages have not yet been relocated, suggesting that we may already have reached a political-economic tipping point. Second, forest fires shape landscape and ecological characteristics in interior Alaska. Climate-driven changes in fire regime require increased fire-fighting resources to maintain current patterns of vegetation and land use, but these resources appear to be less and less available, indicating an approaching tipping point. Third, rapid sea level rise, for example from accelerated melting of the Greenland ice sheet, will create a choice between protection and abandonment for coastal regions throughout the world, a potential global tipping point comparable to those now faced by Arctic communities. The examples illustrate the basic idea that if costs of response increase more quickly than available resources, then society has fewer and fewer options as time passes.     

Social perceptions of the impacts of Colombo water supply projects

The complexity of development activities, in which the interactions between various forces often mean that outcomes are unpredictable and unanticipated, highlights the importance of objective and comprehensive evaluations. In the specific case of the evaluation of towns east and south of Colombo water supply projects, the findings have major implications for the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals, if the water-related objectives are to be fulfilled. The study found that 30% of the households of these towns that are receiving clean, piped water are not using it for drinking. Instead, they are continuing to drink contaminated well water. Whereas it is considered that the main beneficiaries of water supply projects have been women and people who are sick, elderly, or disabled, the general perception is that the health conditions of the families have not improved with the provision of clean water (in fact, many claim that their health conditions have deteriorated). In spite of the higher cost of the supplied water, people are willing to pay for it as long as the supply is reliable.     

Characteristics of pipe corrosion scales in untreated water distribution system and effect on water quality in Peshawar,Pakistan

This study investigated the characteristics of iron corrosion scales in pipes at tube well, overhead tank, and consumers’ end in older untreated water distribution system in Peshawar city, Pakistan. Effect of water quality conditions on corrosion scales and that of scales on drinking water quality in such systems was also assessed by undertaking a comparison with new piped distribution systems. The scales were analyzed for chemical composition and morphology using X-ray diffraction (XRD), inductively coupled plasma (ICP), and a scanning electron microscope (SEM), while water quality was examined for physicochemical and biological characteristics. The main crystalline phases of corrosion scales were goethite, magnetite, siderite, and quartz. From tube well to consumers’ end, goethite increased from 36 up to 48%, quartz declined from 22 to 15%, while magnetite fluctuated and siderite disappeared. Elemental composition of scales showed the deposition of Zn, Al, Mn, Cr, Pb, Cu, As, and Cd with Zn (13.9 g/kg) and Al (3.6 g/kg) in highest proportion. The SEM analysis illustrated the presence of microbial communities indicating the formation of biofilms in the corrosion scales. The significant difference (P <?0.05) in levels of dissolved oxygen (DO), Cl^?, SiO₄^4?, electrical conductivity (EC), SO₄^2?, NO₃^?, alkalinity, hardness, and trace metals between old (DS-O) and new piped systems indicated their role in corrosion scale formation/destabilization and the effect of scale dissolution on water quality. In DS-O, EC, Cu, and Mn were significantly higher (P?<?0.05), whereas turbidity, EC, DO, and SiO₄^4? significantly increased from source to consumers’ end implying a higher dissolution of scales and lowered corrosion rates in DS-O to utilize SiO₄^4? and DO for iron oxidation.

     

Secondhand smoke exposure is associated with smoke-free laws but not urban/rural status

The objective was to determine secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure with and without smoke-free laws in urban and rural communities. The research hypothesis was that SHS exposure in public places could be improved by smoke-free law regardless of urban and rural status. Indoor air quality in hospitality venues was assessed in 53 communities (16 urban and 37 rural) before smoke-free laws; 12 communities passed smoke-free laws during the study period. Real-time measurements of particulate matter with 2.5 µm aerodynamic diameter or smaller (PM_2.5) were taken 657 times from 586 distinct venues; about 71 venues had both pre- and post-law measurements. Predictors of log-transformed PM_2.5 level were determined using multilevel modeling. With covariates of county-level percent minority population, percent with at least high school education, adult smoking rate, and venue-level smoker density, indoor air quality was associated with smoke-free policy status and venue type and their interaction. The geometric means for restaurants, bars, and other public places in communities without smoke-free policies were 22, 63, and 25 times higher than in those with smoke-free laws, respectively. Indoor air quality was not associated with urban status of venue, and none of the interactions involving urban status were significant. SHS exposure in public places did not differ by urban/rural status. Indoor air quality was associated with smoke-free law status and venue type.

Implications:?This study analyzed 657 measurements of indoor PM_2.5 level in 53 communities in Kentucky, USA. Although indoor air quality in public places was associated with smoke-free policy status and venue type, it did not differ by urban and rural status. The finding supports the idea that population in rural communities can be protected with smoke-free policy. Therefore, it is critical to implement smoke-free policy in rural communities as well as urban areas.     

Perchlorate: Problems,Detection, and Solutions

The perchlorate anion (ClO 4 m ) is produced when the solid salts of ammonium, potassium, and sodium perchlorate, and perchloric acid dissolve in water. Ammonium perchlorate, used in solid rocket engine fuels, has a limited shelf life and must periodically be replaced. Before 1997, perchlorate could not be readily detected in groundwater at concentrations below 100 µg/L, until the California Department of Health Services developed an acceptable analytical method that lowered the detection limit to 4 µg/L. Subsequently, groundwater containing perchlorate were soon encountered in several western states, and contamination became apparent in Colorado River water. Most perchlorate salts have high water solubilities; concentrated solutions have densities greater than water. Once dissolved, perchlorate is extremely mobile, requiring decades to degrade. Health effects from ingesting low dosage perchlorate-contaminated water are not well known: it interferes with the body's iodine intake, causing an inhibition of human thyroid production. Contaminated surface and groundwater treatment may require bio- and/or phytoremediation technologies. Perchlorate in groundwater is relatively unretarded; it probably travels by advection. Therefore, it may be used as a tracer for hydrocarbon and metal contaminants that are significantly more retarded. Possible forensic techniques include chlorine isotopes for defining multiple or commingled perchlorate plumes.     

Fuzzy neural network for flow estimation in sewer systems during wet weather.

Estimation of the water flow from rainfall intensity during storm events is important in hydrology, sewer system control, and environmental protection. The runoff-producing behavior of a sewer system changes from one storm event to another because rainfall loss depends not only on rainfall intensities, but also on the state of the soil and vegetation, the general condition of the climate, and so on. As such, it would be difficult to obtain a precise flowrate estimation without sufficient a priori knowledge of these factors. To establish a model for flow estimation, one can also use statistical methods, such as the neural network STORMNET, software developed at Lyonnaise des Eaux, France, analyzing the relation between rainfall intensity and flowrate data of the known storm events registered in the past for a given sewer system. In this study, the authors propose a fuzzy neural network to estimate the flowrate from rainfall intensity. The fuzzy neural network combines four STORMNETs and fuzzy deduction to better estimate the flowrates. This study's system for flow estimation can be calibrated automatically by using known storm events; no data regarding the physical characteristics of the drainage basins are required. Compared with the neural network STORMNET, this method reduces the mean square error of the flow estimates by approximately 20%. Experimental results are reported herein.     

Marine protected areas in the eastern African Region: how successful are they?

This article reviews the governance and management of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and the coral reefs they contain, in the eastern African Region. This includes the Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Tanzania, and the Seychelles. Three generations or categories of MPAs are distinguished: i) small areas for protection of a single species or unique marine habitat; iii) large multiple use MPAs designed for coastal development as well as biodiversity protection; and iii) MPAs managed by a nongovernmental organization (NGO) or the private sector. Each of these MPA types is examined according to the policies, legislation, and management systems they entail as well as the economic and community situation they operate within. The paper also provides a review of some eastern African MPAs in terms of their size and location, the type of MPA, zonation schemes, and financial status. The successes of the different types of MPAs are discussed based on specific indicators, such as changes in biodiversity, infrastructure, compliance to regulations and the level of involvement of primary stakeholders in the management. From the review it is clear that a fourth generation of MPAs may be forthcoming; community-based MPAs. Although lack of data makes it difficult to assess the effectiveness of these different categories of MPAs, it is clear that no MPA can succeed without support of the local communities. Generally, the results of the analysis are promising for MPAs, however a lack of data is hampering a deeper analysis. The major issues facing MPAs in the region are highlighted, as well as some regional initiatives striving to address these issues. A number of recommendations are made, aiming to strengthen the establishment and management of MPAs in the eastern African region.     

Effect of sewer headspace air-flow on hydrogen sulfide removal by corroding concrete surfaces

Hydrogen sulfide adsorption and oxidation by corroding concrete surfaces at different air-flows were quantified using a pilot-scale sewer reactor. The setup was installed in an underground sewer research station with direct access to wastewater. Hydrogen sulfide gas was injected into the headspace of the sewer reactor once per hour in peak concentrations of approximately 500 ppmv. The investigated range of sewer air-flows was representative for natural ventilated sewer systems, and covered both laminar and turbulent conditions. The experiments demonstrated a significant effect of sewer air-flow on the kinetics of hydrogen sulfide removal from the sewer headspace. From the lowest to the highest air-flow investigated, the rate of adsorption and oxidation increased more than threefold. At all air-flows, the reaction kinetics followed a simple n-th order rate equation with a reaction order of 0.8. The effect of air-flow on hydrogen sulfide adsorption and oxidation kinetics was quantified by a simple empirical equation.     

Household water insecurity and its cultural dimensions: preliminary results from Newtok,Alaska

Using a relational approach, I examine several cultural dimensions involved in household water access and use in Newtok, Alaska. I describe the patterns that emerge around domestic water access and use, as well as the subjective lived experiences of water insecurity including risk perceptions, and the daily work and hydro-social relationships involved in accessing water from various sources. I found that Newtok residents haul water in limited amounts from a multitude of sources, both treated and untreated, throughout the year. Household water access is tied to hydro-social relationships predicated on sharing and reciprocity, particularly when the primary treated water access point is unavailable. Older boys and young men are primarily responsible for hauling water, and this role appears to be important to male Yupik identity. Many interviewees described preferring to drink untreated water, a practice that appears related to cultural constructions of natural water sources as pure and self-purifying, as well as concerns about the safety of treated water. Concerns related to the health consequences of low water access appear to differ by gender and age, with women and elders expressing greater concern than men. These preliminary results point to the importance of understanding the cultural dimensions involved in household water access and use. I argue that institutional responses to water insecurity need to incorporate such cultural dimensions into solutions aimed at increasing household access to and use of water.     

A qualitative sampling method for monitoring water quality in temporary channels or point sources and its application to pesticide contamination

A water-sampling device to monitor the quality of water periodically and temporarily flowing out of concrete tubes, sewers or channels is described. It inexpensively and easily enables a qualitative characterization of contamination via these point-source entry routes. The water sampler can be reverse engineered with different sizes and materials, once installed needs no maintenance, passively samples the first surge, and the emptying procedure is short. In an agricultural catchment area in Germany we monitored an emergency overflow of a sewage sewer, an outlet of a rainwater sewer and two small drainage channels as input sources to a small stream. Seven inflow events were analysed for 20 pesticide agents (insecticides, fungicides and herbicides). All three entry routes were remarkably contaminated. We found parathion-ethyl concentrations of 0.3 microg l(-1), diuron up to 17.3 microg l(-1), ethofumesate up to 51.1 microg l(-1), metamitron up to 92 microg l(-1) and prosulfocarb up to 130 microg l(-1).     

Double trouble: health risks of accidental sewage release

Occupational health risks from long-term exposure to sewage are well documented [Am J. Ind. Med. 25 (1994) 59; Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 81 (2001) 39; Am J. Ind. Med. 40 (2001) 170]. Some studies suggest an increase in the incidence of specific cancers [Am J. Ind. Med. 19 (1991) 75; J. Occup. Med. 36 (1994) 31]. There are also many reports of acute fatalities in confined spaces (sewage chambers and pipes) [H&S at Work 13 (1991), 10; FACE report: sewer worker dies when inflatable sewer plug bursts in Washington, DC, Performer, National Institute For Occupational Safety and Health, 19th July 1990]. In a residential area incidents of sudden sewage release can be regarded as double trouble because both the emergency service personnel and the local residents may be exposed to a galaxy of chemical and microbiological agents present in sewage. However, data on the effects of acute non-occupational exposure due to accidental sewage releases is still very limited. The incidents investigated here took place at two different locations in the southern part of the UK. In both incidents the symptoms experienced by those exposed were more serious than expected by the public health experts.     

Transforming urban planning processes and outcomes through creative methods

Inclusively delivering the sustainable development goals (SDGs) remains challenging, particularly in urban areas, where some of the most pressing concerns exist. To achieve the transformative SDG agenda, new methods are required to overcome current deficits in engagement around inclusion and equitable outcomes. Evaluating against theories of governance and inclusion, we test a mixture of digital and physical creative methods abilities to deliver co-designed solutions that influence mobility and road safety planning outcomes in East African cities. Greater inclusion led to improved interactions of citizens with decision makers, and the identification of novel, practical solutions, delivering some elements of transformation. Risks include creative methods being used to co-opt communities to official agendas, and institutional planning norms needing to adapt to respond to a wider range of stakeholders. Overall, where risks are mitigated, we recommend that using Creative Methods could localise SDG delivery, ensuring more equitable and effective outcomes from infrastructure development investments.Supplementary InformationThe online version of this article (10.1007/s13280-020-01436-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.