Pre-harvest Viral Contamination of Crops Originating from Fecal Matter

Pre-harvest contamination of fresh produce and fruits is a possible route for viral transmission which should not be ignored. The contamination originates from viruses shed in human or animal fecal materials which eventually reach crops through many steps and hurdles, including spread of viruses into the agricultural environment through leakage of septic tanks/pipes or runoff from animal lagoons, virus survival during biosolids and manure treatment, virus survival and transport in soil and subsequent contamination of irrigation water, and virus transmission to crops through irrigation water, etc. Initially, large quantities of virus particles may be released from infected humans or animals, and then in the environment viruses are gradually inactivated under various natural conditions (e.g., temperature, water activity, microbial activities, etc.) and only a tiny portion of viruses may reach crops and cause the contamination. However, the fact that the infectious dose of some foodborne viruses is as low as 10–100 particles makes the pre-harvest contamination still a threat to human health. In the USA, the Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) regulations and guidances on proper treatment and usage of manure and biosolids for agricultural purpose may largely reduce the release of viruses to the environment; however, pre-harvest viral contamination due to fecal matter is not completely avoidable. This review focuses on the current knowledge of pre-harvest viral contamination and describes the complex transmission process regarding the presence and survival of virus in soil and fecal material, the effect of different biosolids/manure treatment on virus inactivation, the transmission of virus from soil to water, the contamination of crops by irrigation water and survival of virus on crops.     

Virological Quality of Irrigation Water in Leafy Green Vegetables and Berry Fruits Production Chains

This study condenses data acquired during investigations of the virological quality of irrigation water used in production of fresh produce. One hundred and eight samples of irrigation water were collected from five berry fruit farms in Finland (1), the Czech Republic (1), Serbia (2), and Poland (1), and sixty-one samples were collected from three leafy green vegetable farms in Poland, Serbia, and Greece. Samples were analyzed for index viruses of human or animal fecal contamination (human and porcine adenoviruses, and bovine polyoma viruses), and human pathogenic viruses (hepatitis A virus, hepatitis E virus, and noroviruses GI/GII). Both index and pathogenic viruses were found in irrigation water samples from the leafy green vegetables production chain. The data on the presence of index viruses indicated that the highest percentage of fecal contamination was of human origin (28.1 %, 18/64), followed by that of porcine (15.4 %, 6/39) and bovine (5.1 %, 2/39) origins. Hepatitis E virus (5 %, 1/20) and noroviruses GII (14.3 %, 4/28) were also detected. Samples from berry fruit production were also positive for both index and pathogenic viruses. The highest percentage of fecal contamination was of human origin (8.3 %, 9/108), followed by that of porcine, 4.5 % (4/89) and bovine, 1.1 % (1/89) origins. Norovirus GII (3.6 %, 2/56) was also detected. These data demonstrate that irrigation water used in primary production is an important vehicle of viral contamination for fresh produce, and thus is a critical control point which should be integrated into food safety management systems for viruses. The recommendations of Codex Alimentarius, as well as regulations on the use of water of appropriate quality for irrigation purposes, should be followed.     

Degradation of 14C-glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in three agricultural soils

Glyphosate (N-phosphonomethyl glycine) is the most used herbicide worldwide. The degradation of 14C-labeled glyphosate was studied under controlled laboratory conditions in three di erent agricultural soils: a silt clay loam, a clay loam and a sandy loam soil. The kinetic and intensity of glyphosate degradation varied considerably over time within the same soil and among di erent types of soil. Our results demonstrated that the mineralization rate of glyphosate was high at the beginning of incubation and then decreased with time until the end of the experiment. The same kinetic was observed for the water extractable residues. The degradation of glyphosate was rapid in the soil with low adsorption capacity (clay loam soil) with a short half-life of 4 days. However, the persistence of glyphosate in high adsorption capacity soils increased, with half-live of 19 days for silt clay loam soil and 14.5 days for sandy loam soil. HPLC analyses showed that the main metabolite of glyphosate, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) was detected after three days of incubation in the extracts of all three soils. Our results suggested that the possibility of contamination of groundwater by glyphosate was high on a long-term period in soils with high adsorption capacity and low degrading activities and/or acid similar to sandy loam soil. This risk might be faster but less sustainable in soil with low adsorption capacity and high degrading activity like the clay loam soil. However, the release of non-extractable residues may increase the risk of contamination of groundwater regardless of the type of soil.     

地下滴灌对番茄根际微区氮循环微生物量及土壤N2O排放的调控机制

为探明地下滴灌对番茄根际微区氮循环微生物及土壤N₂O排放的影响,采用静态暗箱原位采集法,研究了不同滴灌管埋深（0、10、20、30 cm,依次记为CK、S10、S20、S30处理）对番茄根区土壤水分、养分、根系形态、微生物及N₂O排放的影响.结果表明:S10处理可提高10~20 cm土壤含水率,其土壤NO₃--N含量、DOC（溶解性有机碳）含量、根系分叉数、开花坐果期反硝化菌数量、果实成熟期亚硝化菌和反硝化菌数量分别为CK处理的2.02、1.49、1.85、3.81、2.11和3.75倍（P < 0.05）,且0~20 cm土壤孔隙度较CK处理增加了10.72%（P < 0.05）,N₂O排放量为CK处理的1.99倍（P < 0.05）.S20处理显著提高了20~30 cm土壤含水率,其土壤NO₃--N含量、DOC含量、根系分叉数、开花坐果期反硝化菌数量、果实成熟期亚硝化菌和反硝化菌数量分别为CK处理的2.66、1.38、2.77、6.0、5.56和12.50倍（P < 0.05）,且0~20 cm土壤孔隙度较CK处理增加了22.32%（P < 0.05）,N₂O排放量为CK处理的2.24倍.S30处理形成0~20 cm土壤“干层”和20~40 cm土壤“湿层”,土壤NO₃--N含量、根系分叉数、开花坐果期亚硝化细菌和反硝化细菌数量分别为CK处理的1.66、2.22、2.00和1.80倍（P < 0.05）,但DOC含量、0~20 cm土壤孔隙度、反硝化细菌数量等显著低于S20处理（P < 0.05）,N₂O排放量与CK处理无显著差异（P < 0.05）.地下滴灌方式下土壤N₂O排放主要为反硝化作用,不同滴灌管埋深形成的土壤水分分布会影响根系分叉数和0~20 cm土壤孔隙度,调节NO₃--N和DOC含量、亚硝化细菌和反硝化细菌生物量,影响“根系-土壤-微生物”的交互作用和N₂O排放量.S10、S20处理下根区环境利于增强“根系-土壤-微生物”的交互作用、促进反硝化作用和N₂O排放,S30处理相对会减弱“根系-土壤-微生物”的交互作用、抑制N₂O排放.研究显示,地下滴灌管埋深（土壤供水位置）通过调节根际微区土壤环境,改变氮循环微生物组成,进而影响“根系-土壤-微生物”的交互作用效应和土壤N₂O排放量.      

灌溉方式对设施土壤温室气体排放的影响

为了寻求在高产、高效、节水的同时能够最大程度促进温室气体减排的灌溉方式,以长期定位灌溉设施蔬菜(以番茄为例)栽培土壤为研究对象,探讨覆膜滴灌、节点式渗灌、沟灌3种不同灌溉方式对土壤温室气体(N₂O、CO₂、CH₄)排放特征的影响,以及温室气体排放与土壤温度和湿度两大环境因子的相关性,并运用产气比概念对温室气体累积排放量进行比较.结果表明:①在番茄生长季,不同灌溉方式下N₂O排放总量表现为沟灌(25.33 kg/hm2)>覆膜滴灌(23.87 kg/hm2)>节点式渗灌(10.04 kg/hm2),土壤温度适宜条件下,N₂O排放通量与土壤湿度呈极显著相关(P<0.01).②CO₂排放通量随着气温升高及植株生长而逐渐增大,具有明显的季节性变化.不同灌溉方式下CO₂排放总量表现为节点式渗灌(11.84 t/hm2)>沟灌(10.45 t/hm2)>覆膜滴灌(9.53 t/hm2);覆膜滴灌和节点式渗灌处理下CO₂排放通量与土壤温度呈极显著相关(P<0.01),沟灌处理下二者呈显著相关(P<0.05).③在番茄整个生长季期间,土壤总体表现为大气CH₄的汇,不同灌溉方式下CH₄吸收总量表现为节点式渗灌(1.98 kg/hm2)>覆膜滴灌(0.93 kg/hm2)>沟灌(0.71 kg/hm2),CH₄排放通量与土壤湿度呈显著相关(P<0.05).研究显示,采用覆膜滴灌方式不仅可以达到高产、高效、节水的目标,而且综合排放的温室气体量最少,可达到土壤温室气体最大程度的减排效果,减缓全球气候变暖趋势,是一种最佳的灌溉方式.      

病毒在土壤中的存活时间与传播能力及其影响因素

土壤是病毒在自然界主要的分布场所,也是病毒传播的一种媒介.对流感病毒、肠道病毒、甲型肝炎病毒和冠状病毒在土壤中的存活与传播进行了系统分析,并探究了病毒在土壤中吸附与存活的主要影响因素.结果表明:流感病毒、肠道病毒、甲型肝炎病毒和冠状病毒均能在土壤中存活较长时间,并能以土壤为介质进行传播,进而导致人体暴露;土壤微生物、含水量、土壤类型及温度是影响病毒在土壤中吸附与存活的主要因素,土壤微生物的存在、含水量的降低以及温度的升高可能阻碍病毒在土壤中的存活,黏粒含量及pH较高的土壤中病毒的吸附量与存活率较高,而金属氧化物及有机质含量较高的土壤中病毒的吸附量与存活率较低.基于上述分析,对病毒在土壤中存活与传播的研究提出了有针对性的建议,如系统开展我国土壤病毒的调查研究,加强病毒在土壤中存活、传播规律及影响因素的研究等.研究显示,土壤在病毒的环境传播过程中具有重要作用,不可忽视病毒经土壤传播产生的风险.      

日光温室夏季休闲期间的土壤管理对可溶性氮的影响

日光温室夏季休闲期间大水漫灌和高温闷棚是普遍的土壤处理措施,该过程灌水多、温度高,对氮素循环影响大.为了探明休闲期间土壤管理对氮素保持与损失的影响,通过田间试验揭示夏季休闲期间大水漫灌、高温闷棚对不同灌溉施肥模式(滴灌、漫灌)和不同有机物料还田处理(单施有机肥、有机肥配施小麦秸秆、有机肥配施玉米秸秆)土壤可溶性氮的影响.结果表明:作物收获后,滴灌和漫灌各处理平均w(矿质氮)分别为103.9和68.6 mg/kg,大水漫灌使滴灌0~30 cm土层w(矿质氮)显著降低30%,漫灌w(矿质氮)变化不大.日光温室夏季休闲期w(SON)(SON为可溶性有机氮)为16.3~69.1 mg/kg,SON相对含量为15%~48%.大水漫灌使滴灌和漫灌w(SON)分别显著增加2.9和2.5倍;高温闷棚使滴灌和漫灌w(SON)显著降低107.1和72.4 kg/hm2,降幅分别为41%和34%,同时w(矿质氮)分别显著增加117.9和126.7 kg/hm2,土壤氮素矿化速率分别为1.7和1.8 mg/(kg·d).与单施有机肥相比,长期有机肥配施玉米或小麦秸秆可显著增加滴灌w(矿质氮),但对w(SON)无影响.综上,休闲期间的土壤管理对土壤表层氮素含量的影响较大,其中大水漫灌容易造成滴灌残留氮素的大量损失,而随后的高温闷棚加速了SON的矿化.      

沈抚灌区土壤生态恢复途径初步研究

沈抚灌区是我国最大的石油类污灌区之一 ,已有长达 40年的污灌历史。灌区土壤中石油类有机污染物积累严重 ,特别是芳烃类污染物所占比例逐年增高 ,已给区域人群健康带来很大的潜在威胁 ,农田土壤的生态恢复迫在眉睫。本文全面分析了沈抚灌区土壤的污染特点 ,进行了土壤生物修复的初步研究 ,阐述了土壤生物修复方法的选用和开发方向 ,并对该区域生态恢复的途径进行了探讨     

奎河污灌区的氮、磷污染

田间污灌模拟实验及污灌区和非污灌区土壤,地下水中氮,磷含量的调查和对比分析表明,污水中含量高的氮,磷能显著提高土壤肥力,污灌区作物长势良好,但土壤中积累的氮和磷是污灌区地表水和地下水的潜在污染源,虽然土壤对ＮＨ４离子有很强烈的吸附,截留和转化作用,但含量高的ＮＨ４离子能缓解慢下移,并在上层潜水中积累,污灌和降雨能淋溶土壤中经硝化作用产生的ＮＯ２和ＮＯ３离子,造成地下水的污染,饱和污灌３个月后,浅层     

不同灌溉方式旱田土壤N2O排放和氮素淋溶特征

通过野外原位监测试验,利用静态箱-气相色谱法、土壤溶液提取器分别对旱田土壤N₂O排放及氮素淋溶进行2018和2019年连续两年观测.试验设计为DCK （滴灌无肥）、DD （滴灌+N 500kg/hm²）、DG （滴灌+N 1000kg/hm²）、FCK （沟灌无肥）、FD （沟灌+N 500kg/hm²）、FG （沟灌+N 1000kg/hm²）.结果表明,不同施氮量、不同灌溉方式对N₂O排放和氮素淋溶量影响具有极显著差异（P<0.01）.N₂O排放量随施氮量的增加而增加,滴灌与沟灌相比可有效降低N₂O排放,2018和2019年FCK、FD、FG的N₂O累积排放量分别为2,23.79,45.73kg/hm²和2.08,6.23,13.93kg/hm²,而DCK、DD、DG分别降低了35%、80.9%、75.6%和26.7%、66.4%、21.5%.2018和2019年旱田土壤氮素淋溶量均表现为：滴灌<沟灌,80cm深度土壤溶液氮素淋溶量<40cm.2018和2019年相同施氮量下滴灌与沟灌相比,在40cm和80cm分别能减少氮素淋溶量36.95%~63.10%和54.93%~87.92%.主成分分析结果表明,影响N₂O排放的主要环境因子为土壤NO₃^--N含量和降水频率,相关系数分别为0.689、0.596;影响氮素淋溶量的主要环境因子为降水频率和灌水频率,相关系数分别为0.697和-0.729.滴灌可有效减少N₂O排放和氮素淋溶量,在提高肥料利用率的同时可减轻环境污染.     

模型模拟土壤性质和植被种类对再生水灌溉水盐运移的影响

为推动再生水安全灌溉,本研究运用ENVIRO-GRO模型模拟了不同土壤性质、植被条件下土壤盐分的分布规律及累积趋势,探讨了土壤性质和植被种类对再生水灌溉水盐运移的影响.研究发现,不同土壤初始含盐量下,经多年重复模拟后最终达到统一的平衡状态;而不同土壤质地下,随着灌溉年份的增加,壤土、黏壤土中的土壤ECe年均值逐渐增加直到平衡,砂壤土中的土壤ECe年均值逐渐减少直到平衡,平衡时土层中的ECe值砂壤土〈壤土〈黏壤土.3种植被下,大叶黄杨、油松的土壤ECe值增加量小于早熟禾;土壤盐分在土层中的空间、时间分布也均有所不同.此外,不同模拟情景下,土壤盐分累积都不会影响植被的生长（黏壤土除外）,但均出现轻度盐渍化（砂壤土除外）.     

沙颍河流域典型癌病高发区土壤硝态氮对地下水和蔬菜硝酸盐积累的影响

在作物生长期、收获期和收获后采集土壤、地下水和蔬菜样品,探讨癌病高发区土壤硝态氮对地下水和蔬菜硝酸盐积累的影响,以及由此引发的健康风险.结果表明,氮肥施用和灌溉是造成沿岸土壤、地下水和蔬菜硝酸盐积累的主要原因.受到河流氮污染影响,灌溉用水中氨氮和硝态氮经过灌溉-蒸发和淋溶过程的反复交替,向土壤和地下水迁移,引起土壤、地下水和蔬菜硝酸盐的积累.紧邻沙颍河的癌病高发村庄,土壤、地下水以及蔬菜硝态氮积累均明显高于全区平均水平.土壤在作物生长期和收获后分别达到149.01 mg·kg-1和31.70 mg·kg-1,其中多年菜地土壤硝态氮积累最为突出,分别达到276.44和68.26 mg·kg-1.作物生长期地下水硝态氮平均含量达38.32 mg·L-1,超标近3倍,叶菜类蔬菜硝酸盐平均含量高达3269.04 mg·kg-1,超出允许含量1倍以上.癌病高发村庄居民存在突出的饮水和蔬菜硝酸盐暴露健康风险.     

滴灌对农田土壤CO2和N2O产生与排放的影响研究进展

研究滴灌条件下土壤CO2和N2O的排放特征及其影响机制,有助于深刻了解灌溉方式变化对农田生态系统碳氮循环的影响,对农业灌溉管理措施的改进和农业温室气体减排具有重要的意义.本文综述了滴灌对农田土壤CO2和N2O排放的影响,从土壤水分、土壤温度、土壤养分和土壤结构等方面分析了滴灌条件下农田土壤CO2和N2O产生和排放的主要影响机制,在此基础上探讨了滴灌对大气温室效应影响的不确定性以及目前研究中存在的主要问题.     

Temporal-spatial distribution and variability of cadmium contamination in soils in Shenyang Zhangshi irrigation area, China

Heavy metal contamination in soils has been of wide concern in China in the last several decades. The heavy metal contamination was caused by sewage irrigation, mining and inappropriate utilization of various agrochemicals and pesticides and so on. The Shenyang Zhangshi irrigation area （SZIA） in China is a representative area of heavy metal contamination of soils resulting from sewage irrigation for about 30 years duration. This study investigated the spatial distribution and temporal variation of soil cadmium contamination in the SZIA. The soil samples were collected from the SZIA in 1990 and 2004; Cd of soils was analyzed and then the spatial distribution and temporal variation of Cd in soils was modelled using kriging methods. The kriging map showed that long-term sewage irrigation had caused serious Cd contamination in topsoil and subsoil. In 2004, the Cd mean concentrations were 1.698 and 0.741 mg/kg, and the maxima 10.150 and 7.567 mg/kg in topsoils （0-20 cm） and subsoils （20-40 cm） respectively. These values are markedly more than the Cd levels in the second grade soil standard in China. In 1990, the Cd means were 1.023 and 0.331 mg/kg, and the maxima 9.400 and 3.156 mg/kg, in topsoils and subsoils respectively. The soil area in 1990 with Cd more than 1.5 mg/kg was 2701 and 206.4 hnl2 in topsoils and subsoils respectively; and in 2004, it was 7592 and 1583 hm^2, respectively. Compared with that in 1990, the mean and maximum concentration of Cd, as well as the soil area with Cd more than 1.5 mg/kg had all increased in 2004, both in topsoils and subsoils.     

油脂对红壤结构性质与水流运动特征的影响

本文通过室内灌水入渗试验,研究了灌溉水油脂浓度（0,1.0,3.0和10.0g/L）、灌水频率（1d1次,2d1次,4d1次）和灌溉模式（纯清水灌溉,纯含油脂灌溉水灌溉,含油脂灌溉水-清水交替灌溉）对受灌土壤结构性质与水流运动特征的影响.结果显示,随灌水进入到受灌土壤中的油脂主要集中在优先流通道中快速运动,优先流湿润锋处的土壤油脂浓度较高且不受灌溉水中油脂浓度的影响,表明即便是采用较低油脂浓度的灌溉水灌溉,依然对地下水系统存在较高的污染风险;高频率、低定额的含油脂灌溉水灌溉有利于进入到受灌土壤中的油脂向深层土壤运动,使得斥水性土层厚度增大,从而导致入渗水流运动的不确定性及地下水系统的污染风险均增大;油脂对受灌土壤团聚体的再团聚作用只有在其浓度较高时才能形成,含油脂灌溉水-清水交替灌溉因降低了受灌土壤的油脂浓度反而导致土壤团聚体分散和破碎.研究成果对再生水和原污水农田灌溉制度设计具有参考价值.     

降雨-径流过程中土壤表层磷迁移过程的模拟研究

以人工降雨的方法，对巢湖边旱作表层土壤在降雨后所产生的磷迁移过程进行了研究，结果表明：在两种雨强植（70mm和35mm）90min内模拟的降雨过程中，供试的土壤产生两种径流模式：表面径流和土壤内部培中流，降雨强度大，表面径流和壤中流始流时间早，水流量和深度相应高，累积输出也多，相同雨强下，农田作物的覆盖作用胡促进壤中流，减缓表面流，但对始流时间的影响不大，4种模拟土类型的表面径流累积输出的大小顺序为：BN70（降雨量70mm，盖度为0）＞BC70（降雨量70mm，盖度为80％）＞BN35（降雨量35mm，盖度为０）＞ＢＣ３５（降雨量７０mm，盖度为０）＞ＢＣ７０（降雨量７０mm，盖度为８０％）＞ＢＮ３５（降雨量３５mm，盖度为０）＞ＢＣ３５（降雨量35mm,盖度为８０％），培中流的量序为：ＹＣ７０＞ＹＮ７０＞ＹＣ３５＞ＹＮ３５，裸露土壤的总磷浓度曲线呈波浪状递减，作物覆盖土壤则呈均匀缓慢的递减趋势，土壤物理结构和作特特征对溶解性总磷的变化趋势起主导作用，在中到大雨条件下，壤中累积输出的径流量都低于表面流，差幅决定于土培表层界面特征，表面径流中的磷迁移量是土壤中流的３－４倍。     

Viral Removal by Wastewater Treatment: Monitoring of Indicators and Pathogens

The discharge of treated civil wastewater into natural waters or their reuse in industry and agriculture involves virological risks for the exposed population. Although European and Italian regulations do not require routine viral analysis of treated wastewater, a better understanding of viral contamination and resistance to treatments is needed to assess and control such risks. To this end, a wastewater treatment plant was monitored by analysing the sewage at the plant entry and exit points in order to quantify the initial presence and eventual reduction of adenovirus, Torque Teno virus, Hepatitis A virus, rotavirus, enterovirus, norovirus genogroups I and II, somatic coliphages, Escherichia coli and enterococci. The results reveal that treated water may still contain infectious human viruses and thereby represent a potential health hazard. No significant correlations were found between bacterial indicators and the viruses considered, confirming their inadequacy for virological risk assessment, while the best indicators for virus inactivation in recycled waters seem to be adenovirus, followed by somatic coliphages.