Maternal transfer of organochlorines and brominated flame retardants in blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus)

Although eggs have frequently been used as a biomonitoring tool for contamination with organohalogenated pollutants (OHPs), few studies have investigated the processes of maternal transfer in birds. Here, maternal transfer of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was investigated through comparison of the concentrations and profiles between whole homogenised female blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus) and their eggs. In addition, we examined if there was an effect of laying order on the concentrations of PCBs, OCPs and PBDEs. PCBs were the most abundant contaminants in female blue tits and their eggs, followed by OCPs and PBDEs. Among the OCPs, p,p'-DDE was the most dominant compound and accounted for more than 80% of the sum OCPs. Egg concentrations decreased significantly in relation to the laying order from 1623+/-148 ng/g lipid weight (lw) to 1040+/-47 ng/g lw for the sum PCBs, from 342+/-24 ng/g lw to 235+/-17 ng/g lw for the sum OCPs and from 49+/-5 ng/g lw to 27+/-5 ng/g lw for the sum PBDEs. When reviewing all studies investigating laying order effects of OHPs in birds, no clear patterns emerged, which may be due to differences in study species and methodology among studies. Despite the fact that there were laying order effects in blue tit clutches, the variance in concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs was larger among clutches than within clutches. Variance in OCP concentrations among clutches was similar to the variance within clutches. These results suggest that one randomly collected blue tit egg from a clutch is useful as biomonitoring tool for PCBs and PBDEs, while for OCPs it is recommended to consistently use the same egg from the laying sequence as a biomonitoring tool. Lipid-normalized concentrations of sum PCBs, sum OCPs and sum PBDEs in female blue tits after clutch completion were comparable to the concentrations in the first-laid eggs. The egg/female lipid concentration ratios for sum PCBs, sum OCPs and sum PBDEs decreased significantly from 1.0+/-0.09 to 0.7+/-0.003, 1.1+/-0.1 to 0.7+/-0.02 and 1.2+/-0.14 to 0.8+/-0.05, respectively, during the course of egg laying. The profiles of the females and eggs differed significantly for the PCBs, OCPs and PBDEs. There was a higher contribution of lower chlorinated PCB congeners (CB 28, CB 52, CB 95, CB 101 and CB 110), BDE 183, p,p'-DDT and other less persistent OCPs in the females compared to their eggs. Maternal transfer in blue tits seemed to be selective for the more bioaccumulative and persistent congeners/compounds.     

Variation, levels and profiles of organochlorines and brominated flame retardants in great tit (Parus major) eggs from different types of sampling locations in Flanders (Belgium)

Small-scale geographical variation in the occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was investigated using the eggs of a terrestrial residential songbird species, the great tit (Parus major). In addition, we investigated the influence of the type of sampling location on the presence of these pollutants. To achieve this, 10 different sampling locations in Flanders (Belgium) were classified into 3 groups based on the extent of urbanisation, industrialisation and agriculture. The higher variance among sampling locations for the levels and profiles of PCBs and OCPs, suggests that local contamination sources are more important for the PCBs and OCPs compared to the PBDEs. Levels of PCBs and PBDEs were significantly higher in the industrialised sampling locations compared to the other locations. Sum PCB and sum PBDE levels reached up to 6050 and 79 ng/g lipid weight, respectively. PCBs and PBDEs were highly positively correlated for all groups, suggesting similar exposure pathways and/or mechanisms of accumulation. Significantly higher levels of OCPs (sum OCPs up to 2683 ng/g lipid weight) were detected in the rural sampling locations situated in a residential area. This suggests that local historical usage of OCPs by inhabitants may be an important source of contamination in Flanders. Contamination profiles differed also among the sampling locations. The rural sampling locations had a higher contribution of lower brominated BDE congeners, whereas the industrialised locations had a higher contribution of higher brominated congeners. The differences in contamination profiles among the sampling locations are probably due to differences in exposure. In conclusion, our results showed that the characteristics of a sampling location influence both the levels and profiles of PCBs, OCPs and PBDEs.     

Brominated flame retardants and other organochlorine pollutants in human adipose tissue samples from the Czech Republic

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) represented by polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) together with major persistent organochlorine pollutants, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and selected organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), were determined in adipose tissue samples (n=98) obtained by liposuction of Czech subjects. Compared to other organochlorine pollutants (mostly PCBs and DDTs), levels of PBDE were lower by 2 orders of magnitude ranging from 0.2 to 54.3 ng/g lipid weight. PBDE congeners No. 47, 99, 153 and 183 were the most abundant constituting up to 90% of these pollutants in adipose tissue. The PBDEs content measured in this study was comparable with data reported in similar samples collected in Spain, Sweden, Belgium and Japan, whilst slightly lower than in the United States. Regarding PCBs, the dominating congeners were No. 138, 153 and 180 representing up to 90% of indicator congeners. The levels of PCBs were similar to those found in other European countries. While no age dependency was found for PBDEs, an increase of PCB and OCP levels with age was observed. Different exposure routes of donors were documented by the absence of the relationship between PCBs and OCPs.     

Brominated flame retardants and organochlorines in the European environment using great tit eggs as a biomonitoring tool

Large-scale studies are essential to assess the emission patterns and spatial distribution of organohalogenated pollutants (OHPs) in the environment. Bird eggs have several advantages compared to other environmental media which have previously been used to map the distribution of OHPs. In this study, large-scale geographical variation in the occurrence of OHPs, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), was investigated throughout Europe using eggs of a terrestrial residential passerine species, the great tit (Parus major). Great tit eggs from 22 sampling sites, involving urban, rural and remote areas, in 14 European countries were collected and analysed (5-8 eggs per sampling site). The environmentally most important congeners/compounds of the analysed pollutants were detectable in all sampling locations. For PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs, no clear geographical contamination pattern was found. Sum PCB levels ranged from 143 ng/g lipid weight (lw) to 3660 ng/g lw. As expected, PCB concentrations were significantly higher in the sampled urban compared to the remote locations. However, the urban locations did not show significantly higher concentrations compared to the rural locations. Sum PBDEs ranged from 4.0 ng/g lw to 136 ng/g lw. PBDEs were significantly higher in the urbanized sampling locations compared to the other locations. The significant, positive correlation between PCB and PBDE concentrations suggests similar spatial exposure and/or mechanisms of accumulation. Significantly higher levels of OCPs (sum OCPs ranging from 191 ng/g lw to 7830 ng/g lw) were detected in rural sampling locations. Contamination profiles of PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs differed also among the sampling locations, which may be due to local usage and contamination sources. The higher variance among sampling locations for the PCBs and OCPs, suggests that local contamination sources are more important for the PCBs and OCPs compared to the PBDEs. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which bird eggs were used as a monitoring tool for OHPs on such a large geographical scale.     

Levels of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in fish species from Kahramanmaras, Turkey

The levels of organohalogenated contaminants, such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in four fish species (Acanthobrama marmid (kalashpa), Cyprinus carpio (carp), Chondrostoma regium (nose-carp), and Silurus glanis (wels)) from the Sir Dam Lake, Kahramanmaras, Turkey. These species were selected for their characteristic feeding behaviour and their importance to local human fish consumption. DDTs were the predominant organohalogenated contaminants in all species, with the p,p'-DDE contributing to more than 90% to the total DDTs. Other OCPs, such as hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers, chlordanes and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were found at much lower levels in all five species. The levels of PCBs and PBDEs (on wet weight basis) were lower than in similar species from European or American freshwater systems. PBDE data were measured for the first time in fish species from Turkish environment. Lipid-based concentrations of OCPs, PCBs and PBDEs were higher in wels than in the other species and this was related to its piscivorous feeding mode and to its higher lipid content. Contrarily, concentrations of pollutants in nose-carp were the lowest, in agreement with its more herbivorous diet. A preferential accumulation in muscle compared to liver was observed for all OCPs, PCBs, and PBDEs in wels and carp, while in nose-carp, a preferential accumulation in liver was observed only for PBDEs, p,p'-DDT and PCBs. Racemic amounts for alpha-HCH were measured in all investigated muscle and liver samples, except for carp muscle.     

Country specific comparison for profile of chlorinated,brominated and phosphate organic contaminants in indoor dust. Case study for Eastern Romania, 2010

We have evaluated the levels and specific profiles of several organohalogenated contaminants, including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and flame retardants (FRs), such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), novel brominated FRs (NBFRs), and organophosphate FRs (OPFRs), in 47 indoor dust samples collected in 2010 from urban locations from Iasi, Eastern Romania. The dominant contaminants found in the samples were OPFRs (median sum OPFRs 7890 ng/g). Surprisingly, OCPs were also measured at high levels (median 1300 ng/g). Except for BDE 209 (median 275 ng/g), PBDEs were present in dust samples at relatively low levels (median sum PBDEs 8 ng/g). PCBs were also measured at low levels (median sum PCBs 35 ng/g), while NBFRs were only occasionally detected, showing a low usage in goods present on the Romanian market. The results of the present study evidence the existence of a multitude of chemical formulations in indoor dust. FRs are usually associated to human exposure via ingestion of dust, but other chemicals, such as OCPs, are not commonly reported in such matrix. Although OCPs were found at comparable levels with OPFRs in Romanian dust, OCPs possess a higher risk to human health due to their considerably lower reference dose (RfD) values. Indeed, the OCP exposure calculated for various intake scenarios was only 2-fold lower than the corresponding RfD. Therefore, the inclusion of OCPs as target chemicals in the indoor environment becomes important for countries where elevated levels in other environmental compartments have been previously shown.     

Organochlorine pesticide and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in feathers of birds from different trophic levels of South-West Iran

Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), alpha, beta and gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers, together with polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners (IUPAC Nos. 28, 52, 101, 138, 153 and 180), were determined in tail feathers from 37 birds belonging to 18 species, all originating from the South-West of Iran (Khuzestan, coast of the Persian Gulf). This is the first report on organochlorine contaminants in feathers from museum collections and it is an indication of the concentrations of OCPs and PCBs in the past (1991-1996). Median concentrations of HCHs, DDTs, PCBs and HCB were 22, 14, 11 and 10 ng/g feather, respectively. Significant correlations (p<0.05) were calculated between OCPs (except HCB) and PCBs in the bird feathers. p,p'-DDE and gamma-HCH were the most abundant OCPs, while CB 180, CB 138 and CB 101 were the predominant PCB congeners in almost all species. Significant differences (p<0.05) in the mean concentrations of DDTs and PCBs were detected among species grouped according to their feeding habits. Levels of DDTs and PCBs were highest in the carnivorous species and lowest in the herbivorous species. Levels of OCPs and PCBs in feathers of bids in the 1990s were generally below the thresholds reported to affect reproduction.     

Bioaccumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in wild aquatic species from an electronic waste (e-waste) recycling site in South China

Water and several wild aquatic species including Chinese mysterysnail, prawn, fish, and water snake were collected from a reservoir surrounded by several e-waste recycling workshops in South China. The samples were examined to investigate the levels and bioaccumulation extent of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) released from electronic waste (e-waste) which was processed by crude recycling method. Elevated levels of PBDEs [52.7 to 1702 ng/g wet weight (ww)] and PCBs (20.2-25958 ng/g ww) were found in the collected biota species compared to that in the reference samples (13.0-20.5 ng/g ww for PBDEs and 75.4-82.8 ng/g ww for PCBs). log BAF (bioaccumulation factor) ranged from 2.9 to 5.3 for PBDEs and from 1.2 to 8.4 for PCBs, depending on congeners and species. The relationship between log BAFs and log K(OW) (octanol-water partition coefficient) can be adequately described by species-specific parabolic models wherein log BAFs generally increased at log K(OW)<7 then decreased with further increasing log K(OW) both for PBDEs and PCBs. The exceptions were for Chinese mysterysnail and prawn, in which the log BAFs showed a positive linear correlation with log K(OW) for PBDEs. Some PBDE and PCB congeners showed BAF values declining from the general trend predicted by K(OW), largely attributing to metabolism of these congeners in species sampled.     

Different profiles of anthropogenic and naturally produced organohalogen compounds in serum from residents living near a coastal area and e-waste recycling workers in India

We determined the contamination status and accumulation profiles of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), hydroxylated PCB congeners (OH-PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hydroxylated PBDEs (OH-PBDEs), methoxylated PBDEs (MeO-PBDEs), and bromophenols (BPhs) in serum from e-waste recycling workers and residents near a coastal area in India. Residue levels of penta- to octa-chlorinated PCBs, penta- to octa-chlorinated OH-PCBs, 6MeO-BDE47, 6OH-BDE47, and 2,4,6-tri-BPh in serum from residents living near the coastal area were significantly higher than those in serum from e-waste recycling workers. Residue levels of tri- to tetra-chlorinated PCBs, tri- to tetra-chlorinated OH-PCBs, PBDEs, octa-brominated OH-PBDEs, and tetra-BPhs in serum from e-waste recycling workers were higher than those in serum from residents living near the coastal area. Principal component analysis revealed that residents living near the coastal area and e-waste recycling workers had different serum profiles of chlorinated and brominated compounds.     

Interspecific differences in concentrations and congener profiles of chlorinated and brominated organic pollutants in three insectivorous bird species

We investigated the accumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in eggs of three insectivorous bird species, the great tit (Parus major), the Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) and the Mediterranean gull (Larus melanocephalus), near the harbour of Antwerp (Belgium). Our results show that lapwing eggs had the highest median concentrations of PCBs (4358 ng/g lw) and PBDEs (109 ng/g lw). Mediterranean gulls feed during breeding on ground-dwelling invertebrates on agricultural fields, which is reflected in higher OCP concentrations in eggs (1235 ng/g lw). Apart from differences in accumulation, also interspecific differences in contaminant profiles were investigated. Significant differences among species were found in the profile of PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs. These differences could be attributed to differences in diet, behaviour and metabolic capacity. Interestingly, the OCP profile in lapwing eggs deviated extremely from the two other species. In both great tit and Mediterranean gull eggs p,p'-DDE was by far the most important compound, whereas in lapwing eggs hexachlorobenzene, oxychlordane, trans-nonachlor and even p,p'-DDT were relatively more abundant than p,p'-DDE. The high p,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDE ratio has previously been described in lapwings, which suggests that low p,p'-DDE accumulation in eggs might be inherent for this species.     

Persistent organic pollutants in the Scheldt estuary: Environmental distribution and bioaccumulation

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in the sediment and several species (European flounder, Platichthys flesus; common sole, Solea solea; Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis; shore crab, Carcinus maenas; brown shrimp, Crangon crangon; blue mussel, Mytilus edulis and bristle worms, Polychaeta) from 7 locations in the Scheldt estuary (SE, the Netherlands–Belgium). Overall POP levels in the sediment were low. The average PCB and PBDE concentrations were respectively 31.5 and 115 ng/g dry weight (dw). Highest sediment loads were measured in the vicinity of Antwerp (368 ng PCBs/g dw), a location with intense harbor and industrial activities. Pollution concentrations in the tissues of biota were species-specific. Blue mussels contained the highest lipid concentrations (2.74 ± 0.55%) and reached the highest contamination levels (from 287 to 1688 ng PCBs/g ww, from 2.09 to 12.4 ng PBDEs/g ww). Lowest tissue loads were measured in brown shrimp (from 3.27 to 39.9 ng PCBs/g ww, from 0.05 to 0.47 ng PBDEs/g ww). The PCB congener profile in most of the species was similar with the pattern found in the sediment. PCB 153 was the most abundant congener (16.5–25.7% in biota, 10.4% in sediment). In the sediment, the total amount of PBDEs consisted for more than 99% of BDE 209. Congener BDE 47 had the highest concentrations in all sampled species (38.5–70.1%). Sediment POP loadings and tissue concentrations were poorly correlated, indicating that a simple linear or non-linear relationship is insufficient to describe this relationship, possible caused by the complexity of the bioaccumulation processes and the variability in exposure. Because of the high PCB levels, regular consumption of fish and seafood, especially mussels, from the Scheldt estuary should be avoided.     

Organohalogenated pollutants in human serum from Iassy, Romania and their relation with age and gender

Human serum samples (n=142) from Iassy county (Eastern Romania) collected in 2005 were analyzed for p,p'-DDT and its metabolites, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers, chlordane and metabolites and 14 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners. In all samples, p,p'-DDE (principal metabolite of p,p'-DDT) and beta-HCH (most persistent HCH isomer) were the most abundant organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) with median concentrations of 1975 and 923 ng/g lipid weight (lw), respectively. Hexachlorobenzene and p,p'-DDT were also detected in all samples, but at a lower median concentration of 30 and 340 ng/g lw, respectively. The large variation of the ratio p,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDE (range between 0.02 and 0.80) suggests various degrees of exposure to DDT, including recent exposure, at least to some subgroups of the population. Chlordane and its metabolites were in most cases close to the limit of quantification suggesting a very low use of chlordane formulations in Eastern Romania. Unexpectedly, PCBs were present in all samples at sometimes considerable levels (up to 4970 ng/g lw for sum of 14 PCB congeners) indicating a higher exposure of the Romanian population than previously reported. The PCB profile consisted of persistent congeners such as 138, 153, 170 and 180 which contributed for approximately 75% to the sum PCBs. Concentrations of most pollutants correlated significantly with age (r>0.86, p<0.01). Except for p,p'-DDT and gamma-HCH, the mean levels of OCPs in females were statistically higher than in males, while, except for octa-CBs, no gender differences were found for PCBs. Levels of p,p'-DDE, penta-CBs, hexa-CBs and hepta-CBs were significantly higher in individuals with a rural main residence. In a pooled serum sample, 6 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners were measured at a level of 1.04 ng/g lw. Compared to results available from Central and Eastern European countries, human serum samples from Romania contained higher levels of contamination. This emphasizes that an extensive and rigorous program for the monitoring of OCPs and PCBs in Romanian population is highly needed in the light of possible adverse health effects acknowledged for these pollutants.     

Bioaccumulation of PCDD/Fs,PCBs and PBDEs by earthworms in field soils of an E-waste dismantling area in China

A total of 60 paired samples of earthworm, corresponding soil and wormcast were collected to investigate the bioaccumulation tendency of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in earthworms from a typical E-waste dismantling area in east China. Significant correlations were observed for the total concentrations among different matrix types except for PCDD/Fs in soil and earthworm. The bioaccumulation tendency showed some differences among the contaminants. Calculated biota–soil accumulation factors (BSAFs) indicated that PCBs and PBDEs had higher bioaccumulation potential compared to PCDD/Fs, which was somewhat different from laboratory studies. The plot of mean BSAFs versus log K_ow values for PCBs and PBDEs was well fitted by a second-order polynomial with the maximum BSAF at approximately log K_ow of 6.5. While for PCDD/Fs, only a slightly decreasing trend was observed with increasing log K_ow. Composition analysis indicated that tetra-, penta- and hexa-halogenated homologs had higher bioaccumulation levels, indicating that medium-halogenated congeners with log K_ow around 6.5 are more easily accumulated by earthworms. Furthermore, the ratios of BDE-47/-99 and BDE-99/-100 showed some discrepancies with the technical products and other biotic species, suggesting different bioaccumulation potential of PBDEs in earthworm.     

太湖底泥中多氯联苯的特征与环境效应

分析了太湖底泥中6种PCB同系物（PCB28、52、101、138、153、180）,其中含量最高的为PCB52,平均为0.983 ng/g,最低为PCB138,平均为0.104 ng/g。表层底泥中,检出率最高的为PCB101,达100%,最低为PCB180,只有58.3%。太湖底泥的多氯联苯含量与底泥中有机质和营养元素几乎不相关,表明大气沉降可能是多氯联苯的重要来源。根据沉积物有关风险评价标准,太湖底泥测定的PCB总量尚未达到毒性评价的低值。尽管底泥中PCBs含量不高,但在底栖生物中可以富集,并通过食物链逐级传递,因而其潜在的危害性仍不容忽视。     

Levels and regional trends of persistent organochlorines and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Asian breast milk demonstrate POPs signatures unique to individual countries

Human breast milk samples collected in 2007–2008 from four countries, Vietnam (Hanoi), China (Beijing), Korea (Seoul) and Japan (Sendai, Kyoto and Takayama), were analyzed for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), chlordane-related compounds (CHLs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Comparing with previous surveys, the present study indicates that the DDTs in breast milk from China and Vietnam had gradually decreased during the last decade, but were still 5–10 times higher than those in other nations. The ratios of p,p′-DDE/p,p′-DDT and o,p′-DDT/p,p′-DDT were higher in Beijing than in the other countries, suggesting that there is less fresh intake of commercial DDT products and a possible exposure to dicofol in China. CHL and PCB levels were relatively higher in mothers from Japan, whereas β-HCH and HCB were more common in Chinese women. In Japan, it is suspected that mothers in the urban/coastal area (Sendai) were more continuously exposed to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) than mothers in the rural/inland area (Takayama). In addition, OCP levels in primiparae were significantly higher than those in multiparae from Japan and Korea. These indicate that both parity and regional factors are major determinants of the levels of OCPs and PCBs in human milk. On the other hand, higher concentrations of PBDEs were observed in mothers' milk from Korea. The congener was dominated by BDE-47 (43–54%), followed by BDE-153 (23–33%) in all regions except for Beijing where BDE-28 (23%) was relatively abundant. In Japanese breast milk, regional and parity-dependent distributions were not observed for PBDEs. Among PBDE congeners, age-dependency was observed for BDE-153, which was negatively correlated (p < 0.05) to the age of mothers in Kyoto (17 participants were housewives), while it increased with age in Sendai (10 participants were clerks). No such correlation was seen for BDE-47, indicating that BDE-47 was ingested and assimilated via different kinetics or routes from BDE-153 in Japan.     

Analysis of human milk to assess exposure to PAHs,PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in the vicinity Mediterranean city Mersin,Turkey

Assessment of human exposure to environmental persistent organic pollutants such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) based on the levels in human breast milk provides a reasonable tool not only to assess the contaminant burden in mothers but also to assess potential exposure of breast-fed neonates. There are limited data on levels of PCBs and OCPs in humans but no previous reports from Turkey on chemically determined levels PAHs in human milk. The aim of this study was to report the levels and accumulation profiles of OCPs, PCBs and PAHs in 47 breast milk samples obtained from a Mediterranean city, Mersin. High resolution analyses were performed by a gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometer (GC–MS). Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (4.4′-DDE) was the dominant pollutant. Beta-hexachlorocyclohexane (ß-HCH), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (4.4′-DDT), dieldrin, hexachlorobenzene, oxy-chlordane, cis-heptachlorepoxide were the other main OCPs detected. Mean levels of ΣPCB congeners and WHO_PCB-TEQ were 9.94 and 0.001 ng/g lipid, respectively. PCB 153 showed the highest concentration (3.37 ng/g lipid), followed by PCB 138 and 180. For the dioxin-like PCBs, PCB 118 was the dominant (0.97 ng/g lipid). Naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene and fluoranthene were the major PAHs among the 16 PAHs detected. The estimated daily intakes of DDTs, PCBs, HCHs and HCB were not exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) proposed by the Health Canada Guideline. These results indicate that the neonates of Mersin city are exposed to persistent organic pollutants analyzed in this study. However, neonates born in Mersin province are less exposed than the ones born in other regions, considering OCP and PCB levels in breast milk.     

Human exposure to PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in Ghana: Temporal variation, sources of exposure and estimation of daily intakes by infants

Human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) was evaluated in Ghana using breast milk samples collected in 2004 and 2009. Mean levels and ranges of PBDEs (4.5; 0.86-18 ng/g lw) and PCBs (62; 15-160 ng/g lw) observed in the present study were unexpectedly high, in spite of the fact that Ghana is a non-industrialized country when compared with many of the Asian and European countries. Significant increases were found in the concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs over the years, while no significant increase was observed for HBCDs. Estimated hazard quotient (HQ) showed that all the mothers had HQ values exceeding the threshold of 1 for PCBs, indicating potential health risk for their children. PCBs in dirty oils and obsolete equipment should be of concern as potential sources in Ghana, and e-waste recycling with little or no experience in safe handling could be a threat to this sub-region noted for unregulated disposal of e-waste. The results may point towards an increase in trends in human milk in Ghana, especially in the larger cities but further analysis would be required to confirm this upward trend in levels. This is the first study to report BFRs in human breast milk from Africa, and undoubtedly from Ghana.     

Brominated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls in fish from the river Scheldt, Belgium

Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured in several fish species originating from the river Scheldt (Belgium). Five sampling locations were chosen in a highly industrialized area along the river, while two ponds in the vicinity of the river served as reference sites. The present study is a follow-up of a survey performed in 2000 which reported extremely high levels of PBDEs and HBCDs in eel (Anguilla anguilla) collected from the same region (Oudenaarde, Flanders). The sum of tri- to hepta-BDE congeners (2270+/-2260 ng/g lipid weight (lw), range 660-11500 ng/g lw) and total HBCDs (4500+/-3000 ng/g lw, range 390-12100 ng/g lw) were one order of magnitude higher than levels usually reported from freshwater systems, indicating the presence of point sources. In most samples, levels of total HBCDs were higher than those of PBDEs, probably due to the high density of factories using HBCD as an additive brominated flame retardant (BFR). The high values of HBCDs were confirmed by both gas- and liquid-chromatography-mass spectrometry. Although BFR levels were between the highest ever reported in freshwater ecosystems, PCBs could be detected at even higher concentrations (16000+/-14300 ng/g lw, range 3900-66600 ng/g lw), being among the highest levels recorded in Belgium. The inter-sampling site variation of PBDEs, HBCDs and PCBs was comparable. All locations presented similar PBDE congener profiles, with BDE 47 being the dominant congener, followed by BDE 100, BDE 99 and BDE 49, probably originating from the former use of the penta-BDE technical mixture. In order to estimate the impact of these point sources on human exposure, we further focussed on eels which showed a considerable decrease in the PBDE and HBCD levels between 2000 and 2006. Due to the wide span in concentrations between the different sampling locations, a variable contribution to the total human exposure through local eel consumption was estimated. The calculated daily intake ranged from 3 ng to 330 ng PBDEs/day for normal eel consumers, but was as high as 9800 ng PBDEs/day for anglers, which may be considered at risk.     

Levels and trends of persistent organic pollutants in ringed seals (Phoca hispida) from Central West Greenland, with particular focus on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and the organochlorine compounds polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDTs, HCB, chlordane-related pesticides, HCH and toxaphene were analysed in blubber of juvenile ringed seals from Central West Greenland collected between 1982 and 2006. The longest time series could be established for PBDEs, partly based on archived material, while PCBs and DDTs covered a study period from 1994-2006. All organochlorines showed decreasing trends, most pronounced for DDT and HCH with an annual change of 8%. BDE-47 had a significantly increasing trend of 5% annually. It was the only BDE congener consistently above the detection limit, with annual median concentrations between 0.78 ng/g lw to 3.54 ng/g lw, i.e. about 10 times lower than values from East Greenland observed in a similar time trend study on ringed seal blubber [Rigét F, Vorkamp K, Dietz R, Rastogi SC. Temporal trend studies on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in ringed seals from East Greenland. J Environ Monit 2006; 8: 1000-5]. A clear East>West difference was also found for PCBs and DDTs, but not for chlordanes, toxaphene or HCHs. Sigma 10-PCB, Sigma DDT and Sigma Chlordanes had similar annual median concentrations, typically exceeding SigmaPBDE by two orders of magnitude. The concentrations of HCH and toxaphene were in an intermediate group, with highest annual median concentrations of 135 ng/g lw and 20 ng/g lw, respectively. For most compound groups, the circumpolar trend previously established under for example the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme was confirmed, but apparently, more data are needed for chlordane-related compounds and toxaphene. Statistical analyses of the compound patterns in the ringed seal samples revealed significantly greater differences between seals from East and West than between different sampling years. Higher proportions of PCBs and DDTs and lower proportions of chlordanes and HCHs were found in seals from East Greenland than in those from West Greenland. Based on principal component analysis of individual congener and compounds, seals from East Greenland were found to contain higher proportions of the higher chlorinated CB congeners. Varying patterns between sampling locations may be caused by different exposure situations related to contaminant emissions and transport, but different feeding habits may also affect the contaminant composition.     

Children's exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) through mouthing toys

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have previously been detected in children toys, yet the risk of child exposure to these chemicals through the mouthing of toys or other items is still unknown. We aimed to expand on the current knowledge by investigating the impact of infants' mouthing activities on exposure to PBDEs present in toys. This was established by a leaching model for determining the amount PBDEs that can leach from toys into saliva in simulated conditions. The PBDE migration rate was at its highest for the 15 min low-exposure scenario incubations (198 pg/cm² × min) with the ERM EC-591 certified reference material (CRM) (0.17% w/w PBDEs). The leaching process was congener-dependent, since the percentage of lower brominated PBDE congeners that leached out was up to 4.5 times higher than for the heavier PBDEs. To study the scenario in which a child would mouth on a toy flame retarded with BDE 209 alone, a plastic item containing 7% BDE 209 (w/w) was also tested. The BDE 209 amounts leached out in only 15 min were higher than the amounts leached from the CRM after the 16 h incubation. For the Belgian population, the exposure scenario from mouthing on toys containing PBDEs in amounts similar to the REACH threshold was found to be lower than the exposure from mother's milk, but higher than the exposure through diet or even dust.