Measuring sustainable development - the creative economy perspective

ABSTRACT

World literature presents a variety of approaches to measuring the creative economy at global, national and regional levels, but so far not enough attention has been paid to the issue of sustainability of creative economies. Creative economies do not rely heavily on natural resources which means that their negative impact on the climate is relatively weaker than in the case of other industries. The measurement of sustainable development is an important contribution to the overall efforts in fighting the climate change. Statistical figures show that the share of the creative economy in GDP of the most developed countries is steadily increasing. Therefore, it is legitimate to analyse the sustainable development issues not only through the lenses of utilization of natural resources and environmental issues but also to look at the sustainability challenge for the creative economies. The growth of creative industries may be hindered by scarcity and improper utilization of resouces, but the main threat to the sustainability is the scarcity of intangible resources and goods such as ideas, freedom of thought, leadership, tolerance, quality of education, etc. Based on a literature review, we endeavoured to investigate the sustainability issues which are relevant specifically for the creative economy. In particular, we were interested in the role of local government in supporting the growth of creative economies. This study contributes to the literature in the sense that it provides understanding on how to assess the impact of local government on the sustainability of creative economy.     

Using the paired comparison methodology to assess environmental values in the coastal zone of Ghana

Like many developing countries, Ghana is grappling with environmental issues, such as the degradation of coastal natural resources. In an attempt to ameliorate the current state of affairs, broad institutional arrangements and policy interventions have been put in place. However coastal natural resources are still being overexploited and the effects of this are felt more strongly by certain groups (such as women and the rural poor) than others. This has led to the argument pointing to an urgent need to include local resource users as active participants in environmental decision making and to incorporate their environmental values in the management of coastal natural resources. Using empirical data from women in two Ghanaian coastal communities, this paper highlights the importance of exploring how the environmental attitudes and values of women might be considered in the management of local coastal natural resources. It assesses effectiveness of the paired comparison methodology in this respects and how this method can be also used to prioritise their environmental concerns. The results show that in both areas respondents place the greatest importance on the coastal natural resources as sources of wealth creation and of food, values which are often described as being “anthropocentric”. The paper thus argues that having discovered that the ecological value placed on natural resources is low, initiatives that could win the support of people would be those that link the livelihood and wellbeing to coastal NRM. It emphasizes the fact that conservation cannot exist outside of people and social systems; nor will it succeed unless they are linked to the welfare of resource users.     

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal is very recent. Key issues and considerations about natural shoreline dynamics, main policy instruments, and lessons learned from the EU Demonstration Programmes on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Portugal will be outlined in this paper in an attempt to understand how the practice of ICZM and its prospects are. Coastal zone management problems and their associated side effects, as well as national and international evolution patterns will be drawn. Some means of achieving better coastal zone management practices and ways of addressing some of its forefront issues are also identified. Special attention will go to erosion problems. The pressure induced by urban development and economic activities on coastal areas is increasing. Poor sediment availability combined with years of neglected management and over-exploitation of resources have had a negative impact, and there are many areas showing evidence of coastal erosion. There is a need to improve policies and instruments of coastal planning and management. Coastal zone management plans are being developed for the nine sectors of the continental Portuguese coast, providing a full analysis of coastal systems and a delimitation of uses in relation to the carrying capacity of the shoreline.     

Natural resource scarcity: Empirical evidence and public policy

This study updates and expands the empirical analysis of natural resource scarcity published in 1963 by Harold Barnett and Chandler Morse (“Scarcity and Growth: The Economics of Natural Resource Availability,” Johns Hopkins Press). Unit extraction costs are measured for all extractive products, four major subgroups (agriculture, minerals, forestry, and fishing), and selected individual commodities. The efficacy of the unit cost measure of resource scarcity is addressed and a critique of alternative scarcity indicators is provided. Unit cost appears to be the most practical scarcity index because there are adequate checks against its theoretical shortcomings and data are readily available which contain fewer deficiencies than other indexes. On the basis of the Barnett and Morse definition of relative scarcity, the empirical evidence does not support the need for public actions justified solely on the basis of increasing resource scarcity.     

Evaluation of carrying capacity with particular reference to firewood and fodder resources in Central Himalaya: a case study of Baliya catchment

SUMMARY

The dwindling forests of the Central Himalaya are suffering from serious losses, threatening the subsistence population of the region. This study analyses the rate of consumption of fodder and firewood in a Central Himalayan catchment and estimates the carrying capacity of the catchment for these resources. Estimates indicate that the carrying capacity of the natural ecosystems and agroecosystems, in terms of availability of fodder and fuelwood resources, has already been exceeded.     

Economic aspects of natural resource exploitation

Low entropy accumulations of matter and energy are more economic for humans to exploit as natural resources. This accumulation of a resource takes place over time and the most concentrated resources, such as fossil fuels, are created over geological ages. As the most concentrated resources become depleted it may be possible for technology to enable the exploitation of less concentrated resources, such as low-grade metal ores or thinly populated fishing grounds. Analysis of the timescales necessary to create different types of natural resource reveals three distinct groups. Further consideration of economic characteristics of resources, including ownership and access, and rate of consumption relative to rate of supply confirms the grouping of resources into the three distinct groups. Rate of change of entropy as a resource is exploited is an indicator of its impact on the environment. Consideration of this again suggests three distinct groups of resources, and this paper identifies them as: continuous natural resources (CNR), such as solar power and wind power; potentially renewable resources (PRR), such as fish and forests; and non-renewable resources (NRR), such as fossil fuels and metals.     

The National Resources Inventory: a long-term multi-resource monitoring programme

Interest in natural resources and the environment has led to the development of new federal monitoring efforts, the expansion of existing federal inventory programmes, and discussions of inter-agency collaboration for natural resource assessment data collection. As federal programmes evolve, knowledge gained from existing long-term survey programmes can provide valuable contributions to statistical and operational aspects of survey efforts. This paper describes the National Resources Inventory (NRI), which has been conducted by the US Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service in cooperation with the Iowa State University Statistical Laboratory for several decades. The current NRI is a longitudinal survey of soil, water, and related environmental resources designed to assess conditions and trends every five years on non-federal US lands. An historical overview is provided highlighting the development of the survey programme. Sample design, data collection, and estimation procedures used in the 1992 NRI are described, and statistical issues related to long-term monitoring are discussed.     

The potential of bamboo as an interceptor and converter of solar energy into essential goods and services: focus on Ethiopia

SUMMARY

The sun is the ultimate energy source of the Earth. This energy is a resource if utilised, a menace if not. Plants collect and transform radiant energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis. Part of the converted energy is used for their maintenance, while the remainder is stored as biomass. The living biomass plays a vital role in ecological processes and relationships, and provides essential services: soil and water conservation, a buffer against the adverse effects of rain, wind and sun, aesthetics, recreation, and environmental cleaning. Harvested biomass provides safe energy and materials for production of valuable products through industrial processes and household-based technologies. In the absence of vegetation, solar radiation dries soil moisture and disrupts natural processes essential for healthy ecosystem sustenance. Light-use efficiency of plants is positively correlated with rate of growth and bamboos are among the fastest growing perennial plants. This paper is not a thorough review of radiation or bamboo. The following issues are highlighted: (1) The flow of sunlight to the Earth and its usefulness as a resource if used properly and its tendency to become a nuisance if not. (2) The virtues of bamboos as light interceptors and providers of goods and services, better than many tree species. (3) The endowment of Ethiopia with large natural bamboo resources, the availability of denuded land for expansion, and the urgency for proper management, expansion and utilisation for faster socio-economic development and environmental improvement.     

Increasing pressure, declining water and climate change in north-eastern Morocco

The coastal stretch of north-eastern Mediterranean Morocco holds vitally important ecological, social, and economic functions. The implementation of large-scale luxury tourism resorts shall push socio-economic development and facilitate the shift from a mainly agrarian to a service economy. Sufficient water availability and intact beaches are among the key requirements for the successful realization of regional development plans. The water situation is already critical, additional water-intense sectors could overstrain the capacity of water resources. Further, coastal erosion caused by sea-level rise is projected. Regional climate change is observable, and must be included in regional water management. Long-term climate trends are assessed for the larger region (Moulouya basin) and for the near-coastal zone at Saidia. The amount of additional water demand is assessed for the large-dimensioned Saidia resort; including the monthly, seasonal and annual tourist per capita water need under inclusion of irrigated golf courses and garden areas. A shift of climate patterns is observed, a lengthening of the dry summer season, and as well a significant decline of annual precipitation. Thus, current water scarcity is mainly human-induced; however, climate change will aggravate the situation. As a consequence, severe environmental damage due to water scarcity is likely and could impinge on the quality of local tourism. The re-adjustment of current management routines is therefore essential. Possible adjustments are discussed and the analysis concludes with management recommendations for innovative regional water management of tourism facilities.     

Age and sexual differences in the exploitation of two anthropogenic food resources for an opportunistic seabird

The availability of food resources has been suggested as a major factor in the substantial increase in reproductive output, survival, recruitment and, ultimately, population growth rates in most organisms. In fact, the artificial increase in food availability resulting from human activities has been suggested as a factor in the substantial increase in population size of several seabirds in recent decades. In the present study, our primary aim was to estimate the importance of the main natural prey and two alternative feeding resources, fishery discards and the invasive American crayfish Procambarus clarkii, for an opportunistic seabird, the Audouin’s gull Larus audouinii. We also assessed the influence of age and sex in the use of those three types of food. For this purpose, we compared the analyses of δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C in blood of male and female adults of known age and chicks with those in their potential prey. Our results reveal sex-related and age-related differences in the consumption of fish discards, small pelagic fish and American crayfish. Differences in the diet of males and females and also between adults and chicks could be related to different nutritional requirements. Age differences were probably related to their different foraging proficiency and the tendency of young breeders to opportunistically exploit anthropogenically derived food. This study illustrates the importance of considering the age and sex of individuals to obtain feasible dietary information and to understand how the exploitation of food of human origin could affect population growth.     

Wildlife and wildlife management in Tanzania

Tanzania, arguably mainland Africa's most important nation for conservation, is losing habitat and natural resources rapidly. Moving away from a charcoal energy base and developing sustainable finance mechanisms for natural forests are critical to slowing persistent deforestation. Addressing governance and capacity deficits, including law enforcement, technical skills, and funding, across parts of the wildlife sector are key to effective wildlife protection. These changes could occur in tandem with bringing new models of natural resource management into play that include capacity building, corporate payment for ecosystem services, empowering nongovernmental organizations in law enforcement, greater private‐sector involvement, and novel community conservation strategies. The future of Tanzania's wildlife looks uncertain—as epitomized by the current elephant crisis—unless the country confronts issues of governance, embraces innovation, and fosters greater collaboration with the international community.     

Modeling the impact of feeding stations on vulture scavenging service efficiency

Vultures, the only vertebrate obligate scavengers, are currently facing a dramatic worldwide decline with over half of vulture species now classified as threatened. To address this widespread decline, the use of feeding stations has been widely advocated in recovery programs. However, providing food that is more predictable in time and space than natural resources could disrupt the ecological scavenging service provided by vultures. In this study, we build a multi-agent system (MAS), which describes the social foraging behavior of Gyps vultures in order to investigate how resource predictability in space and resource management affect scavenging service efficiency. We study the possibility that vultures take into account feeding station location in addition of using local enhancement. Our results show that the efficiency of the scavenging service is heavily affected by the way resources are distributed between feeding stations and natural areas. Nevertheless, it appears possible to minimize a loss in service efficiency by increasing the number of feeding stations while keeping the total amount of resources available constant, thus reducing the predictability of the resources located on the stations. We illustrate our work in the case of European feeding stations that provide supplementary resources in areas where natural ones are scarce. Moreover, we discuss the implications worldwide, in particular in the case of India, where feeding stations for vultures are intended to lure individuals away from potentially harmful natural carrion.     

Experimental test of the pupation window model for development of detritivorous insects

Cohort size and food availability to larval detritivores are linked to pupal mass, and hence to adult fitness, by the pupation window model. Previous tests of this model have employed artificial food. This paper derives a version of the model that incorporates the dynamics of natural detritus. Tests of the model using cohorts of Aedes triseriatus Say led to successful predictions of numbers of pupae, female pupal mass, and female development time. However, it is recommended that model parameters be estimated separately for different types of leaf litter.     

Are naked and common mole-rats eusocial and if so, why?

Eusociality in mammals is defined in the present paper by the following criteria: reproductive altruism (which involves reproductive division of labor and cooperative alloparental brood care), overlap of adult generations, and permanent (lifelong) philopatry. We argue that additional criteria such as the existence of castes, colony size, reproductive skew, and social cohesion are not pertinent to the definition of eusociality in mammals. According to our definition of mammalian eusociality, several rodent species of the African family Bathyergidae can be considered eusocial, including the naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber), Damaraland mole-rat (Cryptomys damarensis), and several additional, if not all, species in the genus Cryptomys. Furthermore, some species of social voles (like Microtus ochrogaster) may also fulfill criteria of mammalian eusociality. Understanding the evolution of eusociality in mole-rats requires answers to two primary questions: (1) What are the preconditions for the development of their eusocial systems? (2) Why do offspring remain in the natal group rather than dispersing and reproducing? Eusociality in mammals is by definition a special case of monogamy (more specifically: monogyny one female breeding), involving prolonged pair bonding for more than one breeding period. We argue that eusociality in mole-rats evolved from a monogamous mating system where cooperative brood care was already established. A tendency for group living is considered to be an ancestral (plesiomorph) trait among African bathyergid mole-rats, linking them to other hystricognath rodents. A solitary lifestyle seen in some genera, such as Bathyergus, Georychus, and Heliophobius, is assumed to be a derived trait that arose independently in different lineages of bathyergids, possibly as a consequence of selective constraints associated with the subterranean environment. In proximate terms, in eusocial mole-rats either puberty is assumed to be developmentally delayed so that under natural conditions most animals die before dispersal is triggered (e.g., in the case of Heterocephalus) or dispersal is induced only by an incidental encounter with an unfamiliar, yet adequate sexual partner (e.g., in the case of Cryptomys). Ultimately, a combination of strategies involving either dispersal and/or philopatry can be beneficial, especially in a highly unpredictable environment. If genetic relatedness among siblings is high (e.g., a coefficient of relatedness of 0.5 or more), then philopatry would not invoke an appreciable loss of fitness, especially if the cost of dispersing is higher than staying within the natal group. High genetic relatedness is more likely in a monogamous mating system or a highly inbred population. In this paper, we argue that the preconditions for eusociality in bathyergid mole-rats were a monogamous mating system and high genetic relatedness among individuals. We argue against the aridity food-distribution hypothesis (AFDH) that suggests a causal relationship between cooperative foraging for patchily distributed resources and the origin of eusociality. The AFDH may explain group size dynamics of social mole-rats as a function of the distribution and availability of resources but it is inadequate to explain the formation of eusocial societies of mole-rats, especially with respect to providing preconditions conducive for the emergence of eusociality.     

Evolution of the fast start response in the cavefish Astyanax mexicanus

The extreme sensory environment of subterranean caves presents an adaptive challenge for troglobitic organisms. Although caves provide distinct selective pressures (e.g., darkness, food scarcity), advantages often come with living in isolated places. The cave-adapted (hypogean) form of the teleost Astyanax mexicanus lacks predators in its natural environment, unlike its ancestral surface (epigean) form that inhabits the nearby rivers. This species provides a unique opportunity for comparative studies because A. mexicanus has invaded the cave environment multiple times, providing us with independent comparative adaptive experiments. Here, we examine kinematic parameters that characterize the escape responses of various forms of A. mexicanus. We demonstrate that populations differ in details of fast start performance, but that surface fish do not perform better than cavefish in escape responses. Our results are more consistent with genetic drift or divergent selection among caves than with relaxation of selection in determining the evolution of escape behavior in this system.     

Food availability at birth limited reproductive success in historical humans

Environmental conditions in early life can profoundly affect individual development and have consequences for reproductive success. Limited food availability may be one of the reasons for this, but direct evidence linking variation in early-life nutrition to reproductive performance in adulthood in natural populations is sparse. We combined historical agricultural data with detailed demographic church records to investigate the effect of food availability around the time of birth on the reproductive success of 927 men and women born in 18th-century Finland. Our study population exhibits natural mortality and fertility rates typical of many preindustrial societies, and individuals experienced differing access to resources due to social stratification. We found that among both men and women born into landless families (i.e., with low access to resources), marital prospects, probability of reproduction, and offspring viability were all positively related to local crop yield during the birth year. Such effects were generally absent among those born into landowning families. Among landless individuals born when yields of the two main crops, rye and barley, were both below median, only 50% of adult males and 55% of adult females gained any reproductive success in their lifetime, whereas 97% and 95% of those born when both yields were above the median did so. Our results suggest that maternal investment in offspring in prenatal or early postnatal life may have profound implications for the evolutionary fitness of human offspring, particularly among those for which resources are more limiting. Our study adds support to the idea that early nutrition can limit reproductive success in natural animal populations, and provides the most direct evidence to date that this process applies to humans.     

A resource-based approach to modelling the dynamics of interacting populations

The procedure for modelling the growth of single-species populations [Sakanoue, S., 2007. Extended logistic model for growth of single-species populations. Ecol. Model. 205, 159–168] is improved to be applicable to the study of the dynamics of interacting populations. The improved procedure is based on three assumptions: resource availability changes with population size as a variable, resource supply to populations and population demand for resources are defined as functions of resource availability and population size, and the variables of resource availability and population size shift in the supply function attracted to the demand function. These assumptions are organized into three equations. The equations can generate the dynamics models of plant, herbivore, and detritivore populations, and their own resources. The models can be used to describe prey–predator dynamics. They naturally contain nonlinear terms for the predator’s numerical and functional responses. Depending on the terms, the fluctuations in resource availability and population size stabilize. The three equations can also generate the dynamics models of different populations consuming the same resources. The analysis of zero isoclines of the models shows that a superior population can be simply defined as one with a higher intrinsic rate of natural increase, that a stable coexistence may be realized with the intraspecific interference or the interspecific facilitation of superiors, and that the interspecific interference or the intraspecific facilitation of inferiors may make the coexistence unstable and the inferiors winners depending on their initial population size.     

Assessment of a large watershed in Brazil using Emergy Evaluation and Geographical Information System

Humanity's future depends on the preservation of natural ecosystems that supply resources and absorb pollutants. Rural and urban productions are currently based on chemical products made from petroleum, which are responsible for high negative impacts on the Biosphere. In order to prevent those impacts, efficient public policies seeking for sustainable development are necessary. Aiming to assess the load on the environment (considering the gratuitous contributions of natural systems—a donor's perspective) due to human-dominated process, a scientific tool called Emergy Evaluation has been applied in different production systems, including crops and farms. However, there is still a lack of emergy studies in the context of watersheds, probably due to the difficulty of collecting raw data. The present work aims to carry out an assessment of Mogi-Guaçu and Pardo watershed, through the combined use of Emergy Evaluation and Geographical Information System. The agricultural and natural land uses were considered, while urban areas were excluded. Emergy flows (expressed in seJ ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) obtained for all agricultural and natural land uses were expanded for the whole watershed and the emergy indices were calculated. The results show that the watershed has: low renewability (%R = 32%); low capture of natural resources through high external economic investment (EYR = 1.86); low dependence on natural resources (EIR = 1.16); and moderate load on the environment (ELR = 2.08). Considering a scenario where sugar-cane crops, orchards and pasture areas are converted from conventional to organic management, watershed's emergy performance improved, reaching a new renewability of 38%, but it is still not enough to be considered sustainable.     

Silver–magnetic nanocomposites for water purification

There is a need for protecting and tidying up the natural resources of water, largely polluted by human activities. Impure water leads to health issues, especially in rural areas. Though various techniques had been used for years to purify water, research is still carried out to find out advanced treatment protocols. Here we review the application of nanomaterials to disinfect and purify water resources. We present micro-organisms responsible for waterborne diseases; physical, chemical and biological treatment systems; and disinfection using silver–magnetic nanocomposites.     

Managing organizations for sustainable development in emerging countries: an introduction

This introduction article is for the special issue ‘Managing organizations for sustainable development in emerging countries: natural resources, biodiversity, and climate change’ in the International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology and presents an introduction to the topics and summarizes accepted contributions in the special issue. The accepted works may contribute with organizational management in the search for more sustainable organizations. The works focus on the challenges of managing organizations in a context of degradation of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, and climate change. Accepted papers discuss these issues, based on the reality of emerging economies (e.g. Brazil, India, and China).