Direct assessment of international consistency of standards for ground-level ozone: strategy and implementation toward metrological traceability network in Asia

An international exercise to directly assess consistency of standards for ground-level ozone in East Asia was conducted as part of the East Asian Regional Experiment 2005 (EAREX 2005) in the framework of the Atmospheric Brown Clouds (ABC) project. Ten organizations collaboratively participated in the intercomparison. Four groups representing Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan made comparisons at the Gosan super observatory, Jeju Island, Korea, in March 2005, with ozone instruments calibrated to their national standards, and four Japanese groups made off-site comparisons with laboratory-level standards. All comparisons generally indicated good agreement with the standard reference photometer (SRP) 35, built by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (USA) and maintained by the National Institute for Environmental Studies (Japan). The assessment was expanded to measurement networks contributing to the World Meteorological Organization's Global Atmospheric Watch (WMO/GAW) program as part of off-site comparisons, and excellent agreement was achieved. These efforts contribute to propagating traceability of the national metrology standards among the atmospheric science community, to ensuring comparability of the existing ozone measurements, and to establishing an integrated network of air quality monitoring in Asia.     

Atmospheric Change and Biodiversity

Strategies to conserve biodiversity need to include the monitoring, modelling, adaptation and regulation of the composition of the atmosphere. Atmospheric issues include climate variability and extremes; climate change; stratospheric ozone depletion; acid deposition; photochemical pollution; suspended particulate matter; and hazardous air pollutants. Coarse filter and fine filter approaches have been used to understand the complexity of the interactions between the atmosphere and biodiversity. In the first approach, climate-based models, using GIS technology, helped create future biodiversity scenarios under a 2 × CO₂ atmosphere. In the second approach, the SI/MAB forest biodiversity monitoring protocols helped calibrate the climate-forest biodiversity baseline and, as global diagnostics, helped identify where the biodiversity was in equilibrium with the present climate. Forest climate monitoring, an enhancing protocol, was used in a co-location approach to define the thermal buffering capacity of forest ecosystems and their ability to reduce and ameliorate global climate variability, extremes and change.     

Wmo's activities on background atmospheric pollution and integrated monitoring and research

As early as 1968, WMO decided to start a programme on atmospheric pollution. Consequently, a Panel of Experts on Meteorological Aspects of Atmospheric Pollution was established. It was also decided to operate a network of background air pollution monitoring stations. With increasing public concern on environmental pollution impacts, a growing number of WMO Members joined the programme. The Environmental Pollution Monitoring and Research Programme, as well as the World Climate Programme launched in the late seventies, will provide information on a possible influence of pollution on climate.When the network of background ait pollution monitoring started, some Members had already proposed to carry out multimedia monitoring at suitable stations. Later on, it became obvious that more information is required on levels and trends of pollutants in media interacting with the atmosphere and a project on integrated monitoring was established, the purpose of which is to define the objectives and uses of integrated monitoring and to establish procedures for routine standardized integrated monitoring of the of the environment.Pilot projects presently being carried out in a few Member countries are meant to provide most of the information required for the implementation of global background integrated environmental monitorting.     

Methane Clathrate Outgassing and Anoxic Expansion in Southeast Asian Deeps Due to Global Warming

Numerous marine areas in SouthEast Asia are cold and deep enough to develop stable gas hydrates of greenhouse gases methane and carbon dioxide and of reducing agents such as hydrogen sulfide. In addition many of these deeps have low oxygen values below sill depths. Warming of such waters could:(1) destabilize existing gas hydrates (clathrates) flashing them into gas and(2) reduce the oxygen capacity of waters below the sill depth.Outgassing could increase the buoyancy, producing upwelling of potentially noxious deep waters into the photic zone and even to the surface where the greenhouse gases would be added to the atmosphere. We plotted the depth (pressure) and temperatures of SouthEast Asian deep basins on a clathrate phase diagram to determine their suceptibility to outgassing and upwelling using a creditable global warming scenario. In general, most of the Indonesian basins are too cold or too deep for any pre-existing clathrates to be destabilized by perceived global warming. However, the Sulu Basin of the Philippines and the Halmahera Basin in Indonesian waters have sill depths in the pycnocline shoal enough and temperatures warm enough potentially to support outgassing and upwelling of basin waters, if water temperatures were raised. The presence of gas hydrates has not been demonstrated in these deeps. Although generally associated with high latitudes, clathrates have been identified in tropical waters off Central America. Accordingly, the proximity of the SouthEast Asian deeps to land and their low oxygen content suggest that tropical plant debris could accumulate and provide sufficient organic matter to generate methane and/or hydrogen sulfide clathrates. Local fisheries initially could be affected adversely by upwelling of anoxic or near anoxic waters into the photic zone. However, in the long term, the anoxic effects would dissipate and the nutrients brought up by the upwelling could increase primary productivity. A major adverse affect would be the introduction of methane into the atmosphere, as that gas has about 20 times the warming potential of carbon dioxide.     

Climate change drives warming in the Hudson River Estuary, New York (USA)

Estuaries may be subject to warming due to global climate change but few studies have considered the drivers or seasonality of warming empirically. We analyzed temperature trends and rates of temperature change over time for the Hudson River estuary using long-term data, mainly from daily measures taken at the Poughkeepsie Water Treatment Facility. This temperature record is among the longest in the world for a river or estuary. The Hudson River has warmed 0.945 °C since 1946. Many of the warmest years in the record occurred in the last 16 years. A seasonal analysis of trends indicated significant warming for the months of April through August. The warming of the Hudson is primarily related to increasing air temperature. Increasing freshwater discharge into the estuary has not mitigated the warming trend.     

Dynamic global warming impact assessment integrating temporal variables: Application to a residential building in China

Climate warming is a global concern, and buildings have been recognized as a major contributor because the carbon emissions during their entire life cycles constitute a large share of the total value (almost 40% globally). Many life cycle assessments of buildings have been conducted to quantify the associated global warming impacts. However, few studies have considered the potential temporal variation over the long lifetimes of buildings. In this study, various temporal variables were combined to evaluate the dynamic life cycle global warming impact of a residential building in China. First, annual material and energy consumption data throughout the entire life cycle were acquired from questionnaire survey, statistical reports and literatures. Five dynamic variables (household size, usage behavior, replacement and improvement of components, waste treatment, and energy mix) and their effects on consumption levels were considered. Second, a dynamic inventory analysis tool (DyPLCA) was used to transform the temporal consumption data into dynamic greenhouse gas quantities. The global warming effects of these emissions were quantified using a dynamic characterization tool (DynCO₂). Finally, emission reduction targets for future decades were used to weight the severities of the impacts at different times. The dynamic instantaneous and cumulative global warming impacts of the building were calculated. Dynamic and static assessment results were compared. We also analyzed the contribution of each dynamic variable to the final results and found that the dynamic variables had very different effects (ranging from −42.00% to 45.34%). This study provided an operable dynamic assessment model and available dynamic data for the global warming impact assessment of buildings in China.     

TiO2 nanoparticles influence on the environmental performance of natural and recycled mortars: A life cycle assessment

The World Meteorological Organization has recently reported that greenhouse gases have reached their highest level since 3–5 million years ago. A continuing rise would cause serious consequences e.g., rising temperatures, death of living beings, or water pollution. Cement is associated with those levels since its production encompasses around 8% of global CO₂ emissions. To increase the environmental performance of cementitious materials, different approaches could be followed, for instance, the reuse of waste materials such as recycled aggregate (RA) or the addition of TiO₂ nanoparticles due to its proactive effect during service life. However, no research has been found that examined the effect of nano-TiO₂ addition on recycled mortars in terms of environmental impact. Consequently, the main objective of this research is to evaluate the sustainability of TiO₂ nanoparticles in mortars made with either natural or recycled aggregate. Twelve mixtures with different percentages of nano-TiO₂ substitution (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 2% by the weight of cement) and RA replacement (0%, 50%, 100%) were studied. A life cycle assessment focused on material production (cradle-to-gate) was performed. The functional unit (FU) used was 1 m³ of mortar with a given compressive strength. The mix design was modified to meet the fixed strength defined in the FU. In terms of global warming potential, mortars with RA reduced the environmental impact when 0.5% of nano-TiO₂ was added. Considering waste generation and depletion of natural resources play a crucial role in the sustainability assessment of mortars with RA. Furthermore, when the compressive strength factor was considered in the FU, RA increased the total CO₂ emissions due to the higher amount of cement needed. Finally, despite the apparent harmful effect of nano-TiO₂ using a cradle-to-gate approach, these nanoparticles could highly enhance environmental performance due to their effects during service life.     

Changes in the area of inland lakes in arid regions of central Asia during the past 30 years

Inland lakes are major surface water resource in arid regions of Central Asia. The area changes in these lakes have been proved to be the results of regional climate changes and recent human activities. This study aimed at investigating the area variations of the nine major lakes in Central Asia over the last 30 years. Firstly, multi-temporal Landsat imagery in 1975, 1990, 1999, and 2007 were used to delineate lake extents automatically based on Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) threshold segmentation, then lake area variations were detailed in three decades and the mechanism of these changes was analyzed with meteorological data and hydrological data. The results indicated that the total surface areas of these nine lakes had decreased from 91,402.06 km² to 46,049.23 km² during 1975?C2007, accounting for 49.62% of their original area of 1975. Tail-end lakes in flat areas had shrunk dramatically as they were induced by both climate changes and human impacts, while alpine lakes remained relatively stable due to the small precipitation variations. With different water usage of river outlets, the variations of open lakes were more flexible than those of other two types. According to comprehensive analyses, different types of inland lakes presented different trends of area changes under the background of global warming effects in Central Asia, which showed that the increased human activities had broken the balance of water cycles in this region.     

A System to Monitor Climate Change with Epilithic Lichens

The issue of biological monitoring of the local consequences of anticipated global climate change is considered for the Central Negev Highlands, Israel. Epilithic lichens are suggested as biological monitors. The proposed methodology of such monitoring consists of a sampling scheme, including lichen measurement along transects on flat calcareous rocks, and construction of a trend detection index (TDI). TDI is a sum of lichen species cover with coefficients chosen so as to ensure maximum ability to detect global climate trends. Coefficients have been estimated in a study of lichens along an altitudinal gradient from 500 to 1000 m a.s.l. The gradient study demonstrated that the TDI index is performed better than other integrated indices. Recommendations on this system to monitor climate change with epilthic lichens are given. Measuring, for instance, a hundred transects in fifty plots (two transet per plot scheme) allows one to detect a climate-driven change in the epilithic lichen community corresponding to a 0.8 °C shift in annual mean temperature. Such resolution appears sufficient in view of global warming of 2.5 °C considered by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a realistic prediction for the end of the next century.     

Influences of Climatic Change on Some Ecological Processes of an Insect Outbreak System in Canada's Boreal Forests and the Implications for Biodiversity

Insect outbreaks are a major disturbance factor in Canadian forests. If global warming occurs, the disturbance patterns caused by insects may change substantially, especially for those insects whose distributions depend largely on climate. In addition, the likelihood of wildfire often increases after insect attack, so the unpredictability of future insect disturbance patterns adds to the general uncertainty of fire regimes. The rates of processes fundamental to energy, nutrient, and biogeochemical cycling are also affected by insect disturbance, and through these effects, potential changes in disturbance patterns indirectly influence biodiversity. A process-level perspective is advanced to describe how the major insect outbreak system in Canadian forests, that of the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana Clem. [Lepidoptera: Tortricidae]), might react to global warming. The resulting scenarios highlight the possible importance of natural selection, extreme weather, phenological relationships, complex feedbacks, historical conditions, and threshold behavior. That global warming already seems to be affecting the lifecycles of some insects points to the timeliness of this discussion. Some implications of this process-level perspective for managing the effects of global warming on biodiversity are discussed. The value of process-level understanding and high-resolution, long-term monitoring in attacking such problems is emphasized. It is argued that a species-level, preservationist approach may have unwanted side-effects, be cost-ineffective, and ecologically unsustainable.     

Characterizing the long-range transport of black carbon aerosols during Transport and Chemical Evolution over the Pacific (TRACE-P) experiment

A major aircraft experiment Transport and Chemical Evolution over the Pacific (TRACE-P) mission over the NW Pacific in March-April 2001 was conducted to better understand how outflow from the Asian continent affects the composition of the global atmosphere. In this paper, a global climate model, GEOS-Chem is used to investigate possible black carbon aerosol contributions from TRACE-P region. Our result depicts that absorbing black carbon ("soot") significantly outflow during lifting to the free troposphere through warm conveyor belt and convection associated with this lifting. The GEOS-Chem simulation results show significant transport of black carbon aerosols from Asian regions to the Western Pacific region during the spring season. As estimated by GEOS-Chem simulations, approximately 25% of the black carbon concentrations over the western pacific originate from SE Asia in the spring.     

An integrated assessment modeling framework for assessing primary and secondary impacts from carbon dioxide stabilization scenarios

As the nations of the world negotiate future controls on greenhouse gas emissions, a critical environmental policy issue becomes understanding the multiple environmental consequences of these controls. Here we describe an integrated assessment model for quantifying multiple environmental impacts of large-scale environmental initiatives and apply this model to climate change mitigation. Our analysis shows that reductions in global warming will be accompanied by reductions in ozone depletion, acid rain and mercury emissions, and desulfurization waste generation. We also conclude that the largest collateral benefits from reducing global climate change may be in the developing world. This result is critical since it is the developing nations who ultimately control the long-term success of any climate stabilization strategy. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A Flexible Global Warming Index for Use in an Integrated Approach to Climate Change Assessment

Global Warming Potential (GWP) is an index used to measure the cumulative radiative forcing of a tonne of greenhouse house gas (GHG) relative to that of a ‘reference’ gas (CO₂). Under the Kyoto Protocol, GWP can be used as a fixed index to govern the trade-off between different GHGs in a multi-gas approach to GHGs abatement. The use of fixed GWPs has been criticized for not being very cost effective compared to the use of some flexible indices. To gain wider acceptance, however, a flexible index must also prove to be easy to use, and the economic gains from its adoption must be significant. In this paper, we develop a flexible index based on the concept of marginal rather than cumulative or average global warming potentials. These marginal global warming potentials (MGWPs) can be endogenously determined within a climate model given a particular climate objective based on radiative forcing level. The MGPWs are then linked to the marginal abatement costs of the GHGs, which are also endogenously determined within an economic model. When the two concepts are linked in this way, the result is a cost-effective way of achieving a particular climate change objective with multigas abatement. We show that the savings in costs when using this flexible MGPWs can be significant, and more importantly, they are not uniformly distributed across different regions.

Investigation of impact of environmental changes on precipitation pattern of Pakistan

In this paper, variability in precipitation pattern of Pakistan due to environmental and climatic changes has been studied. Maps have been generated to depict global precipitation variation. Precipitation data of 25 stations of Pakistan have been used. These data were taken from Meteorological Department, Islamabad, Pakistan. The results of two global climate models, namely Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research’s third generation general circulation model and National Center for Atmospheric Research’s first generation precipitation circulation model for A2 scenario have been applied to investigate the changes. It is observed that precipitation pattern will change significantly in the future. The occurrence of precipitation in all seasons for Pakistan is expected to increase with almost uniform distribution across a season. Average annual precipitation of the country will undergo an increase in the range of +57 to +71 % as compared to average of the base period.     

Effect Of Reagent (Dye) Addition In Wet Chemical Method Of Sulfur Dioxide Determination In Ambient Air

For measurement of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) in ambient air, the United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA) had recommended the PRA dye-based colorimetric method as a reference technique. The method has been developed and applied in many countries for a longtime; however information regarding the sensitivity of the method with respect to sampling and analysis conditions is not available. Collaborative studies conducted in some of the South East Asian countries indicated substantial variations (of the order of 50%) in the measured concentrations against the true values. It was observed that dye used for color development plays an important role and even a slight variation in the way the dye solution is prepared can cause substantial variation in the measured SO₂ concentration. Because a major objective of air quality measurements is to relate air pollution concentration to the effects of air pollution, it is important that the method used should yield accurate levels of the pollutant, so that appropriate management plans can be devised and implemented effectively. In the present investigation, therefore, the role of dye used in SO₂ monitoring method has been highlighted. Different makes of dyes prepared in different modes were used to study the variation in the measured SO₂ concentration levels. Specifications of all the dyes were also tested. Need for use of certified reference material (CRM) for SO₂ has also been emphasized.     

Variations in global temperature and precipitation for the period of 1948 to 2010

Climate change has impacts on both natural and human systems. Accurate information regarding variations in precipitation and temperature is essential for identifying and understanding these potential impacts. This research applied Mann–Kendall, rescaled range analysis and wave transform methods to analyze the trends and periodic properties of global and regional surface air temperature (SAT) and precipitation (PR) over the period of 1948 to 2010. The results show that 65.34 % of the area studied exhibits significant warming trends (p?<?0.05) while only 3.18 % of the area exhibits significant cooling trends. The greatest warming trends are observed in Antarctica (0.32 °C per decade) and Middle Africa (0.21 °C per decade). Notably, 62.26 % of the area became wetter, while 22.01 % of the area shows drying trends. Northern Europe shows the largest precipitation increase, 12.49 mm per decade. Western Africa shows the fastest drying, ?21.05 mm per decade. The rescaled range analysis reveals large areas that show persistent warming trends; this behavior in SAT is more obvious than that in PR. Wave transform results show that a 1-year period of SAT variation dominates in all regions, while inconsistent 0.5-year bands are observed in East Asia, Middle Africa, and Southeast Asia. In PR, significant power in the wavelet power spectrum at a 1-year period was observed in 17 regions, i.e., in all regions studied except Western Europe, where precipitation is instead characterized by 0.5-year and 0.25-year periods. Overall, the variations in SAT and PR can be consistent with the combined impacts of natural and anthropogenic factors, such as atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, the internal variability of climate system, and volcanic eruptions.     

The need for ecological monitoring of freshwaters in a changing world: a case study of Lakes Annecy,Bourget, and Geneva

Lakes Annecy, Bourget, and Geneva are large, deep carbonated peri-alpine lakes in eastern France. They are located in the same ecoregion but have been subject to differing degrees of anthropogenic pressure over the past decades. A comparative analysis of these ecosystems can therefore provide valuable information on how the lakes have responded to changes in phosphorus runoff, fish management practices, and global warming. Each of these lakes has undergone a restoration process, and changes in water quality and trophic state, as measured using parameters like transparency, chlorophyll a, nutrient concentrations, and phytoplankton biomass and structure, can be used to evaluate efforts made to preserve these ecosystems. Our results reveal that (1) peri-alpine lakes are exemplary cases of restoration in the world where freshwater eutrophication is on the increase, and (2) efforts must be maintained because of the new context of climate change, the effects of which on the quality and the ecological functioning of lakes are still poorly understood.     

Optimisation of reduction of global CO2 emission based on a simple model of the carbon cycle

A simple model has been designed to describe the interaction of climate and biosphere. Carbon dioxide, understood as a major emitted gas, leads to a change of global climate. Economic interpretation of the model is based on the maximisation of the global CO₂ cumulative emissions. The two most important profiles of emission have been obtained: optimal and multi-exponential suboptimal profiles, each displaying different characteristics. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Emission database for global atmospheric research (Edgar)

Atmospheric chemistry and climate modellers require gridded global emissions data as input into their models. To meet this urgent need a global emissions source database called EDGAR is being developed by TNO and RIVM to estimate for 1990, on a regional and on a grid basis, annual emissions of greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, CO, NO_x, non-methane VOC, SO_x), of NH₃, and of ozone depleting compounds (halocarbons) from all known sources. The aim is to establish at due levels of spatial, temporal and source aggregation the emissions from both anthropogenic and biogenic sources: a complete set of data required to estimate the total source strength of the various gases with a 1×1 ° resolution (altitude resolution of 1 km) and a temporal resolution of a month, supplemented by diurnal variation, as agreed upon in the Global Emissions Inventory Activity (GEIA) of the International Atmospheric Chemistry Programme (IGAC). In this way EDGAR will meet the requirements of present and future developments in the field of atmospheric modelling. The data comprise demographic data, social and economic factors, land use distributions and emission factors (with due emphasis on the uncertainty). As understanding in this field is still changing, due attention is paid to flexibility regarding the disaggregation of sources, spatial and temporal resolution and species. The objective and methodology chosen for the construction of the database and the structural design of the database system are presented, as well as the type and sources of data and the approach used for data collection. As an example, the construction of the N₂O inventory is discussed.     

Seasonal Variations of PM10 and TSP in Residential and Industrial Sites in an Urban Area of Kolkata, India

The objective of the study is to investigate seasonal and spatial variations of PM₁₀ (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 μm) and TSP (total suspended particulate matter) of an Indian Metropolis with high pollution and population density from November 2003 to November 2004. Ambient concentration measurements of PM₁₀ and TSP were carried out at two monitoring sites of an urban region of Kolkata. Monitoring sites have been selected based on the dominant activities of the area. Meteorological parameters such as wind speed, wind direction, rainfall, temperature and relative humidity were also collected simultaneously during the sampling period from Indian Meteorological Department, Kolkata. The 24 h average concentrations of PM₁₀ and TSP were found in the range 68.2–280.6 μg/m³ and 139.3–580.3 μg/m³ for residential (Kasba) area, while 62.4–401.2 μg/m³ and 125.7–732.1 μg/m³ for industrial (Cossipore) area, respectively. Winter concentrations of particulate pollutants were higher than other seasons, irrespective of the monitoring sites. It indicates a longer residence time of particulates in the atmosphere during winter due to low winds and low mixing height. Spread of air pollution sources and non-uniform mixing conditions in an urban area often result in spatial variation of pollutant concentrations. The higher particulate pollution at industrial area may be attributed due to resuspension of road dust, soil dust, automobile traffic and nearby industrial emissions. Particle size analysis result shows that PM₁₀ is about 52% of TSP at residential area and 54% at industrial area.