湖泊底泥土地利用对土壤中重金属铅、铜形态影响

采用田区试验研究了田间种植冬小麦条件下,底泥土地利用前后土壤中重金属铅、铜的形态演变及小麦各器官中铅、铜的富集。结果表明,随着底泥施用量的增加,土壤中重金属铅、铜的可交换态、碳酸盐结合态、铁锰氧化物结合态、有机结合态、残渣态均有不同程度的增加,本试验所有处理中,可交换态铅的质量分数范围为0.02~0.10 mg·kg-1,碳酸盐结合态铅的质量分数范围为0.04~0.24 mg·kg-1,铁锰氧化物结合态铅质量分数为0.41~1.88 mg·kg-1,有机物结合态铅质量分数范围为1.23~4.92 mg·kg-1,残渣态铅质量分数范围为4.82~23.66 mg·kg-1;各处理与对照相比,可交换态铜质量分数增加了40.00%~200.00%,碳酸盐结合态铜质量分数增加了36.84%~363.16%,铁锰氧化物结合态铜质量分数增加了7.17~45.15%,有机结合态铜质量分数增加了7.98%~62.61%,残渣态铜质量分数增加了0.12%~9.69%,各处理的残渣态铅、铜质量分数均较高。随着底泥用量增加,小麦根系、茎叶、籽粒中铅、铜质量分数均呈增加趋势,植株对重金属铅、铜的富集顺序为根系>茎叶>籽粒,铜的富集系数均大于铅。小麦籽粒产量、茎叶生物量及地上部生物量随着底泥施用量的增加,均出现了先增加后减少的现象,当小麦籽粒产量达到最大值时,籽粒中铅、铜质量分数未超出我国相应标准,依此确定底泥环境安全施用量为3051.29 t·hm-2。     

生物炭对土壤外源镉形态及花生籽粒富集镉的影响

镉是存在于农田土壤中毒性较大且较普遍的一种重金属,而生物炭可以应用于重金属污染农田,对作物生长与污染土壤修复产生影响。通过盆栽试验,将生物炭作为镉污染条件下土壤的改良剂,研究不同用量生物炭、镉元素对土壤中镉形态及其含量的影响,进一步测定花生(Arachis hypogaea L.)籽粒镉含量,探明其吸收规律。试验镉施用质量分数(按纯镉计)分别为0、1、10 mg·kg-1,记为Cd0、Cd1、Cd10,在3种不同质量分数的镉污染土壤中分别添加生物炭质量分数0、3.3、6.6、10 g·kg-1,记为C0、C50、C100、C150,共12个处理。土壤镉形态参考Tessier连续提取法分离,镉含量采用原子吸收分光光度计(Z-5000 ASS)测定。样品相关测定分别于花生苗期、花针期、结荚期取土样,成熟期取籽粒样品进行。结果表明:当镉施用量一定时,土壤有效态镉含量与水溶态镉含量随生物炭用量增加而显著降低(P0.05),而其他各形态镉含量随生物炭用量增加而增加。苗期Cd1处理随生物炭施入量的增加,土壤有效态镉质量分数降低8.24%~20.24%;花针期,土壤有效态镉质量分数降低5.95%~38.46%;结荚期则降低6.23%~26.03%。Cd10处理下的3个生育时期,土壤有效态镉含量在C150取得最小值,镉质量分数分别下降12.56%、18.44%和15.52%。在土壤p H值方面,相同处理不同生育时期内出现先小幅降低再升高的趋势。成熟期花生籽粒镉含量随镉施用量的升高而增加;在镉施用量为1、10 mg·kg-1处理下,花生粒镉含量随生物炭施入量的增加而降低,C150Cd1处理的镉质量分数为0.29 mg·kg-1,为施加镉处理组含量最低,即当生物炭施加量为10g·kg-1时,土壤修复效果最佳,花生粒镉含量最低。     

腐殖酸对土壤铅赋存形态的影响

通过室内培养试验,深入探讨了不同用量腐殖酸,对铅污染土壤中铅各形态的影响.结果表明,腐殖酸各处理均能显著降低土壤中铅的交换态(EX-),碳酸盐结合态(Cob-)和铁锰氧化物结合态(FeMn-)的含量,而有机结合态(Ob-)铅和残渣态(Res-)铅的含量则显著提高.施用腐殖酸有效地降低了铅的活性,且影响程度随腐殖酸用量的增加而显著增加.腐殖酸对土壤中铅离子的各形态含量随时间的变化的影响表现为,在培养040 d期间,随培养时间的延长交换态铅含量无明显变化,残渣态铅含量显著降低,其它三种形态均呈增加趋势;培养40 d后,随培养时间的延长各形态的含量均无显著变化.综合考虑认为施入10%质量比的腐殖酸即可显著降低铅的活性,从而可达到较好的修复效果.     

蛭石对镉污染土壤油菜产量和土壤中镉形态的影响

采用盆栽模拟试验法,研究了镉在不同质量分数下和在不同质量分数下加入蛭石后对油菜产量和土壤中镉形态的影响,结果表明:在低质量分数时(≤5 mg·kg-1),镉对油菜产量影响不大,而在5 mg·kg-1促进了其生长,比对照增加了20.5%,差异达显著水平.在10 mg·kg-1、50 mg·kg-1时分别比5 mg·kg-1下降29.81%,68.03%.加入蛭石后在低质量分数时效果不明显,在10 mg·kg-1、50 mg·kg-1时显著增加了油菜的产量,相对增产20.4%,35.9%.同时降低了土壤中交换态,碳酸盐结合态镉的含量,Cd-10分别下降15.77%、7.14%,Cd-50分别下降14.64%、7.21%.而残渣态和有机结合态含量大幅提高,Cd-10分别提高8.65%、9.31%、Cd-50分别提高18.89%、8.44%.     

有机肥对铅在土壤中形态分配的影响

为了解铅污染商品有机肥对培养土壤中铅形态的影响以及低铅含量有机肥对外源铅污染土壤中铅形态分配的影响,在海南采集了4种商品有机肥样品,进行有机肥与土壤铅污染的老化培养实验.结果表明,原土壤中重金属铅主要以交换态(33.43%)和残渣态(30.03%)存在,随着海藻有机肥(HK01)和羊粪有机肥(DF01)施肥量的增加,处理土壤中交换态铅的比例显著降低(P0.05),有机结合态从9.56%提高到22.05%.外源铅(250 mg·kg-1)污染土壤中以交换态(36.21%)、铁锰态(27.03%)和碳酸盐结合态铅(23.54%)为主;随着有机肥料添加量的增大,格瑞龙有机肥处理后,污染土壤中的交换态铅的比例有所下降,添加量为10%时比例最低为27.80%;有机结合态和残渣态铅的比例上升,在20%时比例最大为13.68%、13.35%.鱼蛋白豆粕有机肥处理的土壤中交换态铅和碳酸盐结合态铅比例下降,在添加量为20%时比例分别降低到11.75%和11.89%,铁锰氧化物结合态铅变化不显著;铅主要转入有机结合态铅和残渣态,平均增长比例分别为8.42%、3.03%.施用有机肥经过足够长时间的老化均会使土壤中的有效性高的铅转化成稳定态的铅,因此有机肥对铅污染的土壤的修复作用较大.但是由于重金属铅的移动性差,会累积在土壤表层,施用有机肥前还是要经过检测,选用相对安全的有机肥改良土壤.     

沈阳市加杨(Populus Candensis)叶铅污染的空间分布

实地调查采样、结合GIS技术进行室内综合分析,系统研究了沈阳市加杨叶铅污染的空间分布状况.结果表明,沈阳市加杨(Populus canadensis)叶铅质量分数是0.68～106.767 mg·kg-1,平均值是17.416 mg·kg-1,是对照点叶铅质量分数的15.18倍.叶铅污染较严重.叶铅质鼍分数空间分异大,已形成4个高浓度中心.不同功能区加杨叶铅质量分数由大到小的顺序是:工业区,商业区,二类混合区,居民文教区,一类混合区,对照区.与点状污染源距离越远,叶铅质量分数越小.加杨叶铅质量分数和土壤相关性极其显著,这说明沈阳市实行无铅汽油之后,植物叶铅主要来自土壤.     

潮土中磷锌交互作用机制探讨及磷对锌吸附-解吸的影响

采用室内培养和吸附解吸两种方法,探讨了潮土中磷、锌交互作用机制。结果表明：土壤中DTPA提取态锌质量分数随添加锌量的增加而增加,低磷质量分数处理可提高土壤锌有效性,但高磷质量分数处理却降低了土壤锌的有效性;土壤速效磷质量分数均随锌添加量的增加而有所降低。在施锌25 mg.kg-1背景下,土壤中DTPA提取态锌质量分数随施磷质量分数的增加呈先增加后降低趋势,在添加磷量小于180 mg.kg-1时,土壤DTPA提取态锌质量分数显著地高于其他处理,但随添加磷量的增加,土壤DTPA提取态锌质量分数显著降低,当磷添加量大于540 mg.kg-1时,土壤DTPA提取态锌质量分数明显低于其他磷处理,说明当添加磷量小于180 mg.kg-1时,磷提高土壤中锌有效性的主要机制是二者竞争吸附土壤胶体表面吸附点位的竞争机制;当添加磷量大小540 mg.kg-1时,磷影响锌有效性的主要机制为沉淀作用。在土壤施磷量为180 mg.kg-1时,随添加锌质量分数的提高,土壤中速效磷质量分数呈先升高后降低趋势。吸附-解吸研究表明,随土壤中速效磷质量分数的提高（27.60~2773.86 mg.kg-1）,土壤对锌的吸附量先降低再增加,而KCl解吸的锌量却是先增加再降低。因此潮土中磷锌交互作用机制为,土壤中磷和锌质量分数均较低时,磷与锌有效性呈协同作用;当磷或锌质量分数过高时,协同作用减弱;磷和锌质量分数再增加二者的有效性将出现拮抗作用。     

改性污泥对矿区铜、镉污染土壤的修复

城市污泥的重金属含量超标是限制其资源化利用的主要瓶颈,论文采用石灰＋硫粉＋生物淋滤的方法去除重金属,制备改性污泥,探讨其对矿区Cu、Cd污染农田土壤的修复效果,以期实现以废治污的目标。供试水稻土采自江西某矿区附近农田,土壤Cu和Cd的TCLP（Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure）浸出量分别为40.34 mg·kg-1和660.1μg·kg-1,其中Cu的质量分数超过国际标准值15 mg·kg-1。通过室内土培的方法,将改性污泥分别按土重的0%、1%、3%、5%和10%施入供试土壤培养30 d后,分析土壤Cu和Cd的活性、形态变化以及土壤蛋白酶和脲酶活性等指标评价改性污泥对污染土壤的修复效果及作用机理。结果表明,改性污泥对土壤Cu产生显著的钝化作用,且各施用量对Cu的有效态含量表现出显著差异。当改性污泥的用量为土重的5%时,Cu的有效态含量降至12.03 mg·kg-1,低于国际标准。改性污泥对土壤Cd的钝化效果相对较弱。当改性污泥的用量为1%时,土壤Cd的活性反而有所增加。当改性污泥的用量为5%时,Cd的活性显著降低,土壤Cd的浸出量降至539.6μg·kg-1。土壤重金属形态分析的结果表明,土壤Cu主要以碳酸盐结合态、有机结合态和残渣态存在。改性污泥用量增加,可交换态Cu含量下降,当改良剂用量为土重的5%时,可交换态Cu由8.10%降至4.10%。相反,有机结合态Cu含量由26.45%增加至32.34%。土壤的可交换态Cd含量由36.80%降至30.69%。说明施用改性污泥,土壤可交换态Cu、Cd向有机结合态发生转化。土壤蛋白酶和脲酶的活性变化能较好地指示修复效果,且土壤脲酶的指示效果优于蛋白酶。     

镉对不同硝酸盐累积型小白菜及根际土壤氮素转化的影响

镉污染是农业生态和农产品安全的重大威胁。采用盆栽方法,对比分析硝酸盐高、低累积型品种的小白菜Brassica chinens(前者为品种H,抗病矮脚黄;后者为品种L,金夏时青梗菜)对镉污染的响应,探究不同镉水平对小白菜-土壤系统氮素吸收和转化效应,以期为城郊蔬菜的安全生产提供依据。结果表明,在土壤镉质量分数为0~0.5 mg·kg-1时,小白菜生长不受影响,品种间氮素累积量为品种H品种L。随着镉质量分数的增加,2个品种小白菜生物量均显著降低,品种H单株鲜质量最大降幅达20%,表现更为敏感。镉质量分数高于0.5 mg·kg-1时,显著降低了品种H的氮素吸收和利用,而对低累积品种影响不显著。2个品种小白菜体内硝酸盐含量均在较低的镉质量分数(0.5~1.0 mg·kg-1)处理下有所降低,而当镉质量分数达5.0 mg·kg-1时有所增加,同样是品种H表现更为敏感。随着镉污染水平的增加,小白菜体内镉积累量显著增加,其中品种H在镉质量分数达5.0 mg·kg-1时,累积速率明显降低。通过一元二次模型拟合镉和土壤无机氮质量分数可以得出,镉质量分数为7.1 mg·kg-1时,2个品种小白菜土壤无机氮质量分数均达到最高,分别为34.83和23.73 mg·kg-1。不同品种小白菜在镉污染水平较低时,均具有一定的抗性,而随着镉含量的增加,不同品种对镉毒害响应不同。因此,城郊土壤不同镉污染区域小白菜的种植可依据其品种特性进行选择,从而为蔬菜的生长和土壤的改良提供保障。     

腐殖酸和含磷物质对模拟铅污染农田土壤的钝化效应

利用磷酸二氢铵、过磷酸钙、羟基磷灰石与腐殖酸单独以及复配施用对模拟铅(Pb)污染农田土壤进行钝化处理,采用乙二胺四乙酸二钠盐(EDTA)浸提法、生物可利用性提取(physiologically based extraction test,PBET)评价Pb污染土壤的钝化效果,并通过BCR形态分级实验研究钝化前后土壤Pb形态的变化,探讨不同钝化剂的修复机理.结果表明,施用不同的钝化剂均能降低土壤EDTA和PBET提取态Pb的质量分数,腐殖酸与磷酸盐复配施用的效果优于单一钝化剂处理,腐殖酸与羟基磷灰石(P/Pb物质的量比为2.4)复配施用时效果最明显,土壤EDTA和PBET提取态Pb的质量分数分别降低了29.7%、18.1%;BCR形态分级实验表明,添加钝化剂可有效减少土壤活性较高的弱酸提取态Pb的含量,增加活性较低的残渣态Pb含量,与单一钝化剂处理相比,腐殖酸和磷酸盐复配施用效果更好,尤其是与难溶性的羟基磷灰石复配施用效果最显著.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.