Local aspects of UK renewable energy development: exploring public beliefs and policy implications

Despite several recent UK initiatives to promote renewable energy development at the local level, little research has been carried out to investigate public beliefs about aspects of local renewable energy development. This research attempted to address this gap. Empirical data were collected at the Awel Aman Tawe development in South Wales immediately before and after a public participation process. The results indicate that support for specific aspects of local energy development (partnership with local communities, local use of generated energy and profits put back into the local community) was consistently high across time, with support for local ownership at a slightly lower level, yet still high. Secondly, socio-demographical analyses indicated that personal factors such as respondents' age, gender and employment status were important in shaping several of these beliefs. Since UK renewable energy development has often been controversial and subject to delay, results suggest that the adoption of a locally embedded development approach by public and private sector stakeholders will be strongly supported by local people. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to existing industry best practice guidelines and recent policy initiatives.     

New Models for Implementation Theory: Striking a Consensus on Windfarms

The UK Government has provided financial support to developing renewable technologies through the Non-fossil Fu el Obligation imposed on the regional electricity companies. Several hundred renewable energy schemes have come forward to be assessed for their environmental suitability by local level regulators in a very poorly developed national policy framework. This study examines the development control decisions on windfarm applications since 1983 by the largest district council in Wales, and seeks to highlight the role played by clusters of public and private organizations in policy and programme implementation. With the multiple and sometimes conflicting objectives advanced by these organizations, it was in the interests of the district council to strike a negotiated consen sus between landscape conservation and inward investment concerns. The case study shows the crucial importan ce of the socio-political context for understanding the dynamics of policy making.     

德国可再生能源开发与利用现状及促进措施

德国可再生能源开发与利用在法律制度上形成了联邦法规促进体系,德国政府就可再生能源发展出台了融资、科研支持等一系列促进措施,可再生能源技术的发展和应用以较快的速度实现了市场化和商业化,并以此促进实现温室气体减排、促进经济增长、增加就业和促进关联高技术产业发展。德国近年来已实施的可再生能源发展政策环境、措施和经验值得我们借鉴。     

Opening up the “local” to analysis: exploring the spatiality of UK urban decentralised energy initiatives

Debates surrounding the decarbonisation of energy systems in developed societies have been overlaid with controversy about the merits of decentralised or “community” energy. These are ambiguous concepts, implicating energy generation or demand reduction activities carried out in buildings or across neighbourhood or urban areas, as well as social and political aspects such as trust and communitarian relations amongst participating actors. This research was based on the criticism that most existing advocacy for, and research into decentralised energy (DE) has neglected the spatiality of such initiatives. In particular, the concept of “local” has been largely presumed to be self-evident and unproblematic. Drawing on the analysis of primary and secondary data from nine UK case studies, this study reveals the different degrees to which DE initiatives are locally embedded, dependent upon the sector of the instigating actors. Findings also reveal the multi-dimensionality of discourses of DE, going beyond purely physical or technical aspects to encompass social, spatial and political issues that are intertwined in complex patterns. In particular, it reveals how aspirations to “roll out” successful DE initiatives, consistent with broader policy goals for carbon reduction, are challenged by discourses of local uniqueness and “bottom-up” engagement. Future research is required to investigate the generalisability of the patterns observed.     

Wind energy development in Ontario: a process/product paradox

The Province of Ontario is aggressively pursuing renewable energy development, but not without significant turbulence. Ontario's Green Energy Act (2009) reflects this aggressive pursuit, and is aimed at making the province a global leader in renewable energy development. Wind energy is an integral but controversial part of these commitments. While several installations have been built or announced, conflicts surrounding the development of the technology continue to grow. This article documents, analyses and interprets media coverage in order to understand public discourse potentially driving support for and resistance to wind energy development (WED) in Ontario. Contrary to numerous studies which have elucidated public attitudes towards WED, the media discourse analysed suggests that roadblocks to public acceptance of the technology are more rooted in the development process (renewable energy policies and their implementation) rather than the products of WED (wind turbines). The study highlights the need for increased procedural justice to ameliorate feelings of unfairness which play a key role in fuelling resistance to the technology.     

Public acceptance of large-scale wind energy generation for export from Ireland to the UK: evidence from Ireland

Although international trade in energy may offer a flexible and cost effective means by which European countries could meet their renewable energy targets, developers in the exporting nation can face local opposition for reasons which are not always clear. Using focus groups and a public survey, we contrast perspectives between local stakeholders and wind farm operators and investigate the community impacts associated with large-scale wind energy for domestic use and export from Ireland to the UK. Although the export of renewable energy from Ireland to the UK is currently on hold, our findings suggest that significant investment is required by the state and wind farm operators in better information provision, trust building, effective instruments to internalise wind farm externalities and co-management arrangements before Ireland can fully capture the benefits of wind exports to the UK.     

Environmental performance policy indicators for the public sector: the case of the defence sector

The development of environmental performance policy indicators for public services, and in particular for the defence sector, is an emerging issue. Despite a number of recent initiatives there has been little work done in this area, since the other sectors usually focused on are agriculture, transport, industry, tourism and energy. This type of tool can be an important component for environmental performance evaluation at policy level, when integrated in the general performance assessment system of public missions and activities. The main objective of this research was to develop environmental performance policy indicators for the public sector, specifically applied to the defence sector. Previous research included an assessment of the environmental profile, through the evaluation of how environmental management practices have been adopted in this sector and an assessment of environmental aspects and impacts. This paper builds upon that previous research, developing an indicator framework--SEPI--supported by the selection and construction of environmental performance indicators. Another aim is to discuss how the current environmental indicator framework can be integrated into overall performance management. The Portuguese defence sector is presented and the usefulness of this methodology demonstrated. Feasibility and relevancy criteria are applied to evaluate the set of indicators proposed, allowing indicators to be scored and indicators for the policy level to be obtained.     

A ‘delivery-democracy dilemma’? Mapping and explaining policy change for public engagement with energy infrastructure

Understanding how governments orchestrate public engagement in energy infrastructure decisions has important implications for the relationship between energy transitions, democracy and justice, but existing research is deficient in focusing mainly on single case studies. In response, we conduct a multi-sectoral, comparative analysis for the first time to assess how UK governments have engaged publics, applying a novel mapping methodology that is systematic, longitudinal and cross-technology. Moreover, our focus embraces mechanisms of consultation and support measures (e.g. community benefits) and seeks to explain patterns of change using a pragmatist sociology framework. Findings indicate trends towards a reduced scope for public engagement alongside expanded encouragement of community benefits, but also important sectoral differences. On-shore wind moved towards giving local decision-makers significant control over decisions. Gas-fired power stations experienced continuity, with central government controlling consents and limited interest in community benefits. Fracking facilities received intense promotion of community benefits, alongside incremental moves to restrict local decision-making. We argue that the patterns observed reflect government beliefs about the scope for depoliticisation in concrete situations, in which the conjunction of technologies, sites and publics affects how and whether arrangements for public engagement change. These results raise challenges for how researchers seek to connect energy transitions and democracy.     

(Not) talking about justice: justice self-recognition and the integration of energy and environmental-social justice into renewable energy siting

Renewable energy often provokes heated debate on climate change, energy security and the local impacts of developments. However, how far such discussions involve thorough and inclusive debate on the energy and environmental-social justice issues associated with renewable energy siting remains ambiguous, particularly where government agendas prioritise renewable energy and planning systems offer limited opportunities for public debate on value-based arguments for and against renewable energy developments. Using the concept of justice self-recognition, we argue for greater attention to public discussion of the justice dimensions of renewable energy to assist in developing mechanisms to integrate distributive and procedural fairness principles into renewable energy decision-making. To explore how justice is currently invoked in such contexts, we examine recent U.K. policies for renewable energy and public submissions to applications for small-scale wind energy projects in Cornwall, U.K. The analysis of public comments revealed that justice concerns were rarely discussed explicitly. Comments instead did not raise concerns as justice issues or focused implicitly on distributive justice, stressing local aesthetic, community and economic impacts, clean energy and climate change. However, the findings indicated limited discussion of procedural or participatory justice, an absence that hampers the establishment of coherent procedures for deciding acceptable impacts, information standards, public participation and arbitrating disputes. We conclude by suggesting procedural reforms to policy and planning to enable greater public expression of justice concerns and debate on how to negotiate tensions between energy and environmental-social justice in renewable energy siting decisions.     

A critical and empirical analysis of the national-local ‘gap’ in public responses to large-scale energy infrastructures

A national-local ‘gap’ is often used as the starting point for analyses of public responses to large scale energy infrastructures. We critique three assumptions found in that literature: the public's positive attitudes, without further examining other type of perceptions at a national level; that local perceptions are best examined through a siting rather than place-based approach; that a gap exists between national and local responses, despite a non-correspondence in how these are examined. Survey research conducted at national and local levels about electricity transmission lines in the UK confirm these criticisms. Results do not support a gap between national and local levels; instead, both differences and similarities were found. Results show the value of adopting a place-based approach and the role of surveys to inform policy making are discussed.     

Harnessing place attachment for local climate mitigation? Hypothesising connections between broadening representations of place and readiness for change

Public engagement in local environmental planning and decision-making is often advocated on various grounds, both instrumental and normative. Yet in developed countries in the context of renewable energy infrastructure deployment, place attachment, place identity and place-protective action continue to be implicated in public objection. We set out an interdisciplinary change readiness hypothesis of specifically how local participatory scenario or visioning processes that include climate mitigation measures may support the mobilisation of place attachment for climate mitigation, including renewable energy deployment. We hypothesise that local visioning may support movement towards change readiness by helping to anchor unfamiliar social representations of low carbon energy infrastructure and new patterns of urban form in existing, more positive representations of localities and associated attachments. To this end, seeking ways to modify threat perceptions relating to climate change and renewable energy infrastructure is advocated as a key direction for study.     

Locating ‘power’ in wind power planning processes: the (not so) influential role of local objectors

There have been conflicting accounts of the role and influence of local opposition within planning application outcomes for wind power developments. There is an expanding literature that considers public responses to proposed renewable energy developments and much of this suggests that public opposition is a key factor in the slow growth in renewable energy capacity. However, this paper will show that local opposition groups' power over such planning processes is very limited, and in fact extends only so far as delaying an outcome. Through a thematic content analysis of objection letters to one particular proposed wind power development, the key issues raised in connection with the development will be highlighted. Subsequently, these issues will be compared with those discussed in the official report of the planning appeals process, and it will be shown that the concerns of local objectors had little influence over the eventual verdict.     

Public engagement and climate adaptation: insights from three local governments in Australia

Public participation in decision making is a central component of the planning process; however, implementing effective engagement initiatives to resolve complex planning and policy problems, such as climate change, is challenging for planners. These challenges are particularly acute in coastal communities throughout Australia, where many settlements are at risk of future climate perturbations. Using the International Association for Public Participation framework for public participation, we analyse three local government led public participation initiatives in New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. Our analysis suggests there are three critical factors that can influence the level of public participation in the context of climate change adaptation: the technocratic approach to decision making; absent high order government support; and the lack of evaluation mechanisms for public participation.     

Local authority technology policies

This paper is concerned with the failure of published research to provide a framework within which local technology policy could be analysed and evaluated. It firstly describes a simple model of the technological development process. Then, using this model as a base, develops a framework for analysing the main aspects of technological policies. The paper considers the main results of a recent survey of local authority technology development policies and initiatives before providing some overall conclusions relating to the nature, direction and likely effectiveness of such policies.     

Diversity and connections in community gardens: a contribution to local sustainability

Sustainability requires the integration of social, environmental and economic concerns in international, national and local policy-making. One of the most powerful forces for sustainable development in practice was the Earth Summit of 1992, with its Agenda 21 and Local Agenda 21 (LA21). This latter agenda—the set of policies that aims to create the means to facilitate local sustainability—is particularly important for communities. Community development programmes that also include aspects of sustainable development would seem to embody the spirit of LA21. There are many such diverse schemes and what has emerged is a range of local initiatives that demonstrate parts of the sustainability concept but not a clear picture of sustainable development which covers all of its aspects.

In order to examine this proposition further, an analysis of the community garden movement in the UK was carried out. Community gardens are open spaces managed and operated by members of the local community for a variety of purposes. In the UK many of these are to be found in inner city areas such as in Bradford, Leeds, Bristol and Sandwell. Their growth is marked by their own association—the Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens. The gardens have a variety of purposes: in conjunction with vegetation growing (either as landscape or for consumption), some schemes are experimental permaculture plots, others use organic methods and yet others are concerned with health, education and training issues. All appear to be based in a sense of community, with participation and involvement being particularly strong features.

This sense of community participation and empowerment is what links examples of community gardening. The research reported here collates information gathered from the respondents of a questionnaire and from in-depth interviews, and draws out some of the similarities and themes that community gardens exhibit. From the results, it is suggested that the community garden movement could act as a model for the implementation of social, economic and environmental policies at the local level.     

Discourses of on-farm wind energy generation in the UK farming press

As the owners of the majority of land in the U.K., farmers are well placed to contribute to renewable energy targets. Media coverage can both drive and reflect farmers’ views about renewable energy but has been largely unexplored to date. This article uses discourse analysis to examine the evolution of coverage of one form of renewable energy – on-farm wind – in the U.K. farming press from 1980 to 2013. We identified a diverse debate with five major discourses. On-farm wind turbines are alternatively represented as: profitable farm diversification opportunities; producers of clean energy; important for rural development and sources of conflict. Although press coverage predominantly encourages wind energy production, a further discourse advises farmers to ‘Proceed with Caution’. While emphasising images and values which have widespread affinity among U.K. farmers, the press have increasingly employed an economic frame, constructing wind energy generation as a farm diversification strategy. The most recent farming press coverage predominantly encourages an instrumental approach to wind energy, crowding out other (non-economic) rationales and marginalising local community concerns. This appears to reflect the financial orientation of recent policy support (particularly Feed-in Tariffs), and may have long-term costs in enabling sustainable energy production systems.     

新形势下河北省农村可再生能源管理与政策研究

我国农村可再生能源发展面临生态文明建设、能源安全趋紧、大气污染严重等新的形势变化。作为农业大省,河北省近年来农村可再生能源发展与管理成绩显著,为改善农民生活、保护生态环境、增加能源供应、促进经济社会发展等做出了积极贡献。但新形势下,其农村可再生能源管理也暴露出了思想认识不足、部分法规政策滞后、缺乏宏观科学规划、资金筹措机制单一、后续监督管理不够等问题,需要从加强宣传教育、提高认识水平,完善规章制度、形成法律体系,制定科学规划、明确目标计划,拓宽融资渠道、稳定资金支持、完善服务体系、加强后续管理等方面完善管理与政策,以推进其健康持续发展。     

Local authorities and climate protection in the European union: Putting subsidiarity into practice?

Although intrinsically a global environmental concern, the climate change issue has a number of implications for local authorities. Within the European Union (EU), the remit of local authorities in—-for abatement policies—the crucial areas of energy and transport policy varies considerably, as does their commitment to environmental action more generally. This paper examines the role of local authorities in climate protection within a framework of global, EU and national action, through examples of local strategies from Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden and the UK. The paper finds positive instances of action in all countries, but points to unsympathetic policy frameworks both at national and EU level, such as budget constraints imposed on local authorities, the pursuit of low energy prices combined with a resistance to impose carbon taxes, a lack of energy efficiency standards and insufficient support for public transport.     

Greener local economic development: Reflections from the UK on current European approaches

This paper considers moves to integrate environmental and economic development policies at local level. It provides a brief review of the EU policy frameworks and funding programmes which give a lead to, and support, local authorities in these efforts. Ecologically based approaches to local economic management are particularly highlighted. Municipalities typically employ a mix of regulatory, financial and voluntary measures to improve the environmental performance of businesses, create jobs and work towards greater local self-reliance. With the help of recent examples, the paper explores the variable scope for action—very much dependent on the national context—and identifies some mechanisms which are being used to good effect elsewhere in Europe but which are currently not easily transferable to the UK. Through programmes encouraging networking and the exchange of experience, UK practitioners can gain access to a range of European practice which demonstrates that greener local economic development is a real possibility.     

Environment and energy resources — A UK experience

Summary Exploitation of energy resources need not imply irreperable damage to our physical environment. Unfortunately lack of involvement at the policy planning stage hinders significant improvements despite the enthusiastic but fragmented endeavours of interested parties.Evaluation of alternative strategies must keep pace with prospecting and engineering to achieve real influence upon the ultimate location, scale and form of development.Fruitful examination of policy alternatives is hindered by the competition between energy industries in the UK perpetuated by the apparent lack of a national energy strategy.The fast increasing bulk of environmental guidelines and proposed European legislation will not of itself prevent the significant environmental impact of energy exploitation.There is as yet no legislation in the United Kingdom requiring a developer to submit an environmental impact assessment with a planning application. However, many recent project proposals have been accompanied by such, either voluntarily or at the request of the local planning authority. The quality of such submissions ranges from the superficial to substantial, but few demonstrate evidence of environmental influence on policy formulation, alternative site selection or development characteristics.Recent experience in the UK has achieved significant success in the early introduction of physical planning and environmental criteria during the exploration of Western Europe's largest recoverable deep coal reserves.Environmental influence was achieved through close collaboration between client and consultants. Early discussion with local authorities and other agencies established during coal field exploration provided the basis for ongoing consultation during the four-year study period. Publication of consultants' findings and submission of planning proposals culminated in a public inquiry providing opportunity for public involvement over 84 days of project examination.David Price is an Architect and Town Planner in private practice with extensive experience in urban and regional planning and environmental evaluation in the UK and abroad. He is also a member of Land Planning Group, a multi-disciplined design and planning consultancy.