水稻覆膜节水综合高产技术对稻田CH4排放的影响

采用静态箱-气相色谱法观测了常规栽培和水稻覆膜节水综合高产技术下川中丘陵地区稻田的CH4排放通量,探究覆膜节水综合高产技术对稻田CH4排放的影响。结果表明：整个水稻生长期,常规栽培与水稻覆膜节水综合高产技术稻田CH4排放总量分别为(35.0±3.5)和(5.1±1.0) g·m-2,后者较前者减少稻田CH4季节排放量的(86±4)%。二者CH4平均排放通量在不同水稻生长时期存在如下关系：孕穗期>抽穗期>成熟期>分蘖期。水稻各生长时期,覆膜节水综合高产技术均降低稻田CH4排放,在稻田CH4排放盛期（孕穗期）降幅达79%。在不同土壤水分状况下,水稻覆膜节水综合高产技术稻田CH4平均排放通量存在如下关系：烤田期>烤田后>烤田前;而常规栽培则为烤田期>烤田前>烤田后。不同于常规栽培,烤田对水稻覆膜节水综合高产技术下稻田 CH4排放无明显影响,烤田后降雨促进其 CH4排放。土壤水分状况由低变高更易促使覆膜节水综合高产技术下稻田CH4排放。覆膜节水综合高产技术栽培全生育期内,厢面CH4排放通量与土温、土壤Eh无显著相关性（P>0.05）。厢沟CH4排放与土温显著正相关（r=0.447*,P<0.05）。水稻移栽至烤田前,厢面CH4排放通量与土壤Eh显著负相关（r=0.624*,P<0.05）。     

川中丘陵区稻田甲烷排放及其影响因素

利用静态箱/气相色谱法对川中丘陵区冬水田和水旱轮作稻田进行全生长季CH4排放观测。结果表明,水旱轮作稻田和冬水田CH4排放的季节变化峰值都出现在水稻生长中期,且都有1个典型的排放峰。分析讨论了温度、水稻生物量、耕作制度以及水稻栽培方式等因素对稻田CH4排放的影响。发现川中丘陵水稻生长季节5cm深处地温与稻田CH4排放通量呈显著正相关;水稻植株生长对CH4排放有重要作用;水旱轮作稻田CH4排放通量比冬水田低54.1%～65.1%;冬水田水稻采用强化栽培方式既可提高产量又可减少CH4排放。     

川中丘陵区稻田甲烷排放及其影响因素

利用静态箱／气相色谱法对川中丘陵区冬水田和水旱轮作稻田进行全生长季CH4排放观测。结果表明，水旱轮作稻田和冬水田CH4排放的季节变化峰值都出现在水稻生长中期，且都有1个典型的排放峰。分析讨论了温度、水稻生物量、耕作制度以及水稻栽培方式等因素对稻田CH4排放的影响。发现川中丘陵水稻生长季节5cm深处地温与稻田CH4排放通量呈显著正相关；水稻植株生长对CH4排放有重要作用；水旱轮作稻田CH4排放通量比冬水田低54．1％～65．1％；冬水田水稻采用强化栽培方式既可提高产量又可减少CH4排放。     

耕种方式对稻田甲烷排放的影响

通过田间试验研究了稻田2种土壤耕作强度(深翻耕和浅旋耕)和3种水稻栽培方式(直播、抛秧和插秧)下的CH4排放规律,以探讨稻田土壤耕作强度和水稻栽培方式对CH4排放的影响。结果表明,各水稻栽培方式下,深翻耕和浅旋耕稻田CH4排放季节变化趋势一致。土壤耕作强度对稻田CH4季节排放总量的影响受水稻栽培方式的制约:抛秧方式下,浅旋耕与深翻耕处理相比,稻田CH4排放量减少31.37%(P0.05);而直播和插秧方式下,2者CH4季节排放总量相当。水稻栽培方式显著影响稻田CH4排放季节变化规律:直播稻田CH4排放大致呈现"双峰型"模式,且水稻生育前期CH4排放水平较低;而移栽稻田(抛秧和插秧)CH4排放大致呈现"三峰型"模式,且水稻生育前期CH4排放水平较高。与深翻耕抛秧相比,深翻耕直播和深翻耕插秧稻田CH4排放分别减少23.31%和42.51%;而浅旋耕方式下,3种水稻栽培处理CH4季节排放总量相当。降低土壤耕作强度,以浅旋耕代替深翻耕,可以减少耕作对土壤的扰动,在一定程度上减少稻田CH4排放。与水稻移栽相比,水稻直播能够显著降低水稻生育前期CH4排放,具有一定的CH4减排潜力,但仍需加强中后期田间水分管理。     

华南丘陵区农林复合生态系统早稻田CH4和N2O排放通量的时间变异

采用静态箱-气相色谱法对典型华南农林复合生态系统早稻田CH4和N2O排放进行田间原位测定,探讨早稻田两种温室气体的排放规律。结果表明,有植株参与稻田在水稻生长季节中CH4排放昼夜变化表现为双峰模态,收割后为三峰模态,CH4排放昼夜变化幅度比无植株参与稻田大。在测定期内有植株参与稻田CH4昼夜平均排放通量大小依次为:成熟期(1.96±0.33)>孕穗期(0.13±0.01)>收割后(-0.01±0.02)(mg.m-2.h-1)。有植株参与稻田在孕穗期CH4昼夜平均排放通量显著高于无植株参与稻田(P<0.01)。在测定期内有、无植株参与稻田CH4平均排放通量分别为0.85±0.28、0.14±0.09 mg.m-2.h-1。有、无植株参与稻田N2O昼夜平均排放通量没有显著差异。在测定期内有、无植株参与稻田N2O平均排放通量分别为118.07±50.97、15.65±21.56μg.m-2.h-1。CH4和N2O的排放无论是昼夜变化还是季节变化都与温度没有明显相关关系,其排放受稻田水分和养分状况的影响。水稻作物对CH4排放影响较大,对N2O排放影响不明显。     

辽河三角洲稻区近地层CH_4浓度与通量特征

为准确获取辽河三角洲水稻湿地CH4浓度与通量特征,分析水稻生长发育对CH4浓度与通量的影响,进一步估算稻田CH4排放量,基于采用涡度协方差法(Eddy Covariance Method,EC)获取的2013年4─10月辽河三角洲稻区近地层CH4监测资料,结合水稻生育期,分析了稻田CH4浓度与通量的时间变化规律。结果表明:水稻(Oryza sativa Linn)生长季内,近地层CH4的平均浓度是0.242 mmol·m-3,期间出现3个峰值,分别与泡田期、拔节-抽穗期和成熟期3个生育期相对应;CH4浓度较高时期,其日变化活跃,表现为日间浓度较低夜间浓度较高,日较差大,在其它浓度较低时期,日变化不大。CH4的月排放量在5月最大,为0.700 mol·m-2。CH4通量在水稻生长季内日平均为0.080μmol·m-2·s-1,通量峰值出现规律与浓度一致,其中泡田-移栽期较高,最高值出现在5月11日,为0.707μmol·m-2·s-1,返青期-分蘖期基本无CH4排放,拔节期-抽穗排放量再次升高,之后逐渐降低,在CH4通量较高时期,通量的日变化随气温升高而升高,温度达最大值之后逐渐降低。浓度与通量的日变化呈负相关关系。     

控释肥对稻田CH4排放的影响

采用静态箱法研究了控释肥料和常规肥料处理对赤红壤稻田CH4排放的影响.结果表明①在水稻生长期间,相比对照(CK),不同肥料处理均促进了稻田CH4日排放,其影响顺序为Crf≥Scotts>Urea≥Com>CK;②在移栽后75d和90d时,各处理的水稻地上部干物质积累量与其CH4日排放通量间相关系数分别为0.8298和0.6539,均达极显著水平;③在水稻生殖生长期,各处理CH4阶段累积排放量占全生育期的32.60%~40.08%,其日排放通量在全生育期中居最高值,控制稻田CH4排放的最适时期应是水稻幼穗分化期;④相比复合肥,控释肥一次施用和尿素分次施用均显著地降低了全球增温潜势.图2表2参19     

免耕稻-鸭复合系统减少甲烷排放及其机理研究

以免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田为参照,研究了免耕稻-鸭复合系统中甲烷排放的日变化和季节变化以及稻-鸭复合系统中土壤氧化还原特性对甲烷排放的影响。结果表明:稻田甲烷排放通量日变化与日气温变化基本趋于一致。在水稻分蘖盛期和孕穗期,免耕养鸭稻田甲烷排放通量明显低于免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田, 3者之间甲烷排放通量大小差异白天明显,夜间较小。在水稻分蘖盛期、孕穗期和齐穗期,免耕养鸭稻田水中溶解氧含量比免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田提高38. 4% ~44. 7%。由于鸭子的活动,免耕养鸭稻田的氧化还原电位分别比免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田高11和18mV。而翻耕不养鸭稻田的还原物质总量分别是免耕养鸭稻田和免耕不养鸭稻田的4. 17~12. 34倍和3. 26~7. 02倍,其亚铁离子含量也明显高于后2者,表明翻耕使土壤还原程度增强,进而促进了稻田甲烷的排放。相关分析表明,免耕养鸭稻田氧化还原电位与还原物质总量、活性还原物质总量和亚铁离子含量呈极显著负相关,也与稻田甲烷排放通量呈负相关,但未达显著水平。     

稻鸭鱼共栖生态系统CH4排放规律研究

首次对稻-鸭-鱼共栖生态系统中的甲烷排放通量进行了系统研究。结果表明:甲烷排放通量日变化呈现一定的规律,排放高峰出现在下午14:00~16:00,晚上0:00~4:00达到最低值。稻-鸭-鱼共栖生态系统生态种养期间甲烷排放通量表现出一定的规律,甲烷排放出现2个峰值分别出现在水稻生长返青期、幼穗分化期,第1个峰值为15.813mg/(m2·h),第2个峰值为9.485mg/(m2·h)。其次在水稻分蘖盛期,甲烷的排放通量最高可达8.227mg/(m2·h)。稻-鸭-鱼共栖生态系统中,土壤氧化还原电位增加10.98mV,还原物质总量、活性还原物质总量分别降低1.46cmol/kg、1.25cmol/kg。稻田甲烷排放与土壤氧化还原电位呈极显著负相关,与还原物质总量、活性还原物质总量呈极显著正相关。     

免耕稻-鸭复合系统减少甲烷排放及其机理研究

以免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田为参照，研究了免耕稻-鸭复合系统中甲烷排放的日变化和季节变化以及稻-鸭复合系统中土壤氧化还原特性对甲烷排放的影响。结果表明：稻田甲烷排放通量日变化与日气温变化基本趋于一致。在水稻分蘖盛期和孕穗期，免耕养鸭稻田甲烷排放通量明显低于免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田，3者之间甲烷排放通量大小差异白天明显，夜间较小。在水稻分蘖盛期、孕穗期和齐穗期，免耕养鸭稻田水中溶解氧含量比免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田提高38．4％～44．7％。由于鸭子的活动，免耕养鸭稻田的氧化还原电位分别比免耕不养鸭和翻耕不养鸭稻田高11和18mV。而翻耕不养鸭稻田的还原物质总量分别是免耕养鸭稻田和免耕不养鸭稻田的4．17～12．34倍和3．26～7．02倍，其亚铁离子含量也明显高于后2者，表明翻耕使土壤还原程度增强，进而促进了稻田甲烷的排放。相关分析表明，免耕养鸭稻田氧化还原电位与还原物质总量、活性还原物质总量和亚铁离子含量呈极显著负相关，也与稻田甲烷排放通量呈负相关，但未达显著水平。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.