ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE IN SASKATCHEWAN: CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS1

ABSTRACT: The use of artificial recharge in Saskatchewan and the rest of Canada to improve rural community and farmstead domestic water supply has great potential. Approximately 75 percent of the people in rural Saskatchewan and 26 percent of all the people in Canada are dependent on ground water for their domestic water supply. Typically, this water is highly mineralized and is often unpalatable due to odor and taste. A source of readily available, high quality water to eliminate expensive chemical treatment of available water and long distance hauling would be of significant value to rural residents. Storage of high quality water in aquifers by injection through wells has been documented and has been shown to depend on the use of a surface water catchment system to provide the high quality water. Since air entrainment or formation clogging can occur in poorly operated recharge schemes, development of proper design and operation of recharging procedure is required. This can be accomplished by using an injection response computer model and a properly designed injection system. Small scale artificial recharge projects will provide a valuable commodity to rural water users and will promote sustainable and conjunctive use of surface and ground water resources.     

RECLAIMED WASTE WATER FOR GROUNDWATER RECHARGE1

ABSTRACT. The Orange County Water District has conducted studies in waste water reclamation and groundwater recharge since 1965. The work has been done in three phases: (1) Study in both laboratory and pilot-scale units on the feasibility of reclaiming trickling filter effluent for injection through wells into confined aquifers; (2) long-term injection study to determine the fate of injected reclaimed water and to observe the performance of a multi-casing injection well; (3) testing alternative treatment methods in a 25,000 gpd pilot plant to solve the water quality problems which developed during the injection study. The reclaimed trickling filter effluent was found to be injectable and did not cause excessive well clogging. The multi-casing injection wells performed very satisfactorily. The reclaimed water would be acceptable for domestic use after travel through 500 feet of a confined aquifer in that bacteria, virus and toxic material were consistently absent. However, the odor and taste which persisted in the injected reclaimed water and the high concentration of dissolved inorganics are undesirable characteristics. Methods to eliminate the odor are being tested at the present time. A cooperative project with the Office of Saline Water is under way to develop a source of desalted seawater to blend with reclaimed waste water.     

AN EXAMINATION OF THE MECHANISMS CONTROLLING GROUNDWATER GRADIENTS IN HYPER-ARID REGIONAL SEDIMENTARY BASINS1

ABSTRACT: Although evidence of modern recharge in the North African and Arabian sedimentary basin aquifers exists, it is difficult to determine the volume of recharge. Also, from the evidence of regional groundwater gradients, the flow within the aquifers seems to be appreciably greater than one would intuitively expect. A hypotehtical model embodying the characteristics of the aquifers has been used to investigate the likely significance of various possible flow mechanisms. It is shown that while dewatering in the unconfined area can possibly contribute to flows for a considerable period of time, the maintenance of water levels in the unconfined zone must be the result of modern recharge. It is also shown that recharge depths of less than 10 mm per annum are sufficient given suitable aquifer parameters. Results for various combinations of aquifer parameters and configurations are given, including layered aquifers and the effects of restricted oufflows. Comparisons are made using a “bench mark” example. The work indicates that there is little point in carrying out conventional hydrological balance studies in hyper-arid areas and that, instead, more emphasis should be placed upon good groundwater hydrographic data and modeling.     

EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE ON GROUND WATER QUALITY AND AQUIFER STORAGE RECOVERY1

ABSTRACT: Ground water nitrate contamination and water level decline are common concern in Nebraska. Effects of artificial recharge on ground water quality and aquifer storage recovery (ASR) were studied with spreading basins constructed in the highly agricultural region of the Central Platte, Nebraska. A total of 1.10 million m³ of Platte River water recharged the aquifer through 5000 m² of the recharge basins during 1992, 1993, and 1994. This is equivalent to the quantity needed to completely displace the ground water beneath 34 ha of the local primary aquifer with 13 m thickness and 0.25 porosity. Successful NO₃-N remediation was documented beneath and downgradient of the recharge basins, where NO₃-N declined from 20 to 2 mg L^-1. Ground water atrazine concentrations at the site decreased from 2 to 0.2 mg L^-1 due to recharge. Both NO₃-N and atrazine contamination dramatically improved from concentrations exceeding the maximum contaminant levels to those of drinking water quality. The water table at the site rose rapidly in response to recharge during the early stage then leveled off as infiltration rates declined. At the end of the 1992 recharge season, the water table 12 m downgradient from the basins was elevated 1.36 m above the preproject level; however, at the end of the 1993 recharge season, any increase in the water table from artificial recharge was masked by extremely slow infiltration rates and heavy recharge from precipitation from the wettest growing season in over 100 years. The water table rose 1.37 m during the 1994 recharge season. Resultant ground water quality and ASR improvement from the artificial recharge were measured at 1000 m downgradient and 600 m upgradient from the recharge basins. Constant infiltration rates were not sustained in any of the three years, and rates always decreased with time presumably because of clogging. Scraping the basin floor increased infiltration rates. Using a pulsed recharge to create dry and wet cycles and maintaining low standing water heads in the basins appeared to reduce microbial growth, and therefore enhanced infiltration.     

Artificial recharge of humic ground water

The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficiency of soil in removing natural organic matter from humic ground waters using artificial recharge. The study site, in western Denmark, was a 10,000 ml football field of which 2,000 m2 served as an infiltration field. The impact of the artificial recharge was studied by monitoring the water level and the quality of the underlying shallow aquifer. The humic ground water contained mainly humic adds with an organic carbon (OC) concentration of 100 to 200 mg C L(-1). A total of 5,000 mS of humic ground water were sprinkled onto the infiltration field at an average rate of 4.25 mm h(-1). This resulted in a rise in the water table of the shallow aquifer. The organic matter concentration of the water in the shallow aquifer, however, remained below 2.7 mg C L(-1). The organic matter concentration of the pore water in the unsaturated zone was measured at the end of the experiment. The organic matter concentration of the pore water decreased from 105 mg C L(-1) at 0.5 m to 20 mg C L(-1) at 2.5 m under the infiltration field indicating that the soil removed the organic matter from the humic ground water. From these results we conclude that artificial recharge is a possible method for humic ground water treatment.     

CHARACTERIZING GROUND WATER FLOW IN THE MUNICIPAL WELL FIELDS OF CEDAR RAPIDS,IOWA, WITH SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL TRACERS1

ABSTRACT: Cedar Rapids obtains its municipal water supply from a shallow alluvial aquifer along the Cedar River in east-central Iowa. Water samples were collected and analyzed for selected isotopes and chlorofluorocarbons to characterize the ground-water flow system near the municipal well fields. Analyses of deuterium and oxygen-18 indicate that water in the alluvial aquifer and in the underlying carbonate bedrock aquifer was recharged from precipitation during modern climatic conditions. Analyses of tritium indicate modern, post-1952, water in the alluvial aquifer and older, pre-1952, water in the bedrock aquifer. Mixing of the modern and older waters occurs in areas where (1) the confining layer between the two aquifers is discontinuous, (2) the bedrock aquifer is fractured, or (3) pumping of supply wells induces the flow of water between aquifers. Analyses of chlorofluorocarbons were used to determine the date of recharge of water samples. Water in the bedrock aquifer likely was recharged prior to the 1950s. Water in the alluvial aquifer likely was recharged from the 1960s to 1990s. Biodegradation or sorption probably affected some of the ground water analyzed for chlorofluorocarbons. These processes reduce the concentrations of CFCs, which results in older than actual calculated dates of recharge.     

NUMERICAL MODELING OF SOLUTE TRANSPORT PATTERNS IN THE DAMMAM AQUIFER1

ABSTRACT: During the past two decades, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has witnessed rapid development in its agricultural and urban areas, which has resulted in greater reliance being placed on its ground water aquifers. The intensive development, particularly along the coastline and in the absence of adequate replenishment sources, has led to major deterioration in the quality and quantity of ground water resources. A numerical model of the Dammam aquifer in the Eastern Province is developed and used to predict the extent of the saline intrusion in the aquifer. The types of stresses effecting the solute transport were identified and remedial measures were suggested. (KEY TERMS: numerical modeling; Saudi Arabia; aquifer; modeling/statistics.)     

THE CONCEPT OF SAFE GROUNDWATER YIELD IN COASTAL AQUIFERS1

The traditional factors used to determine safe yield of a groundwater basin (water supply, economics, water quality and water rights) do not include environmental effects. Because of the unique estuarine ecosystems associated with many coastal aquifers, environmental effects should be included in the determination of the safe yield of these aquifers. Controlled saline-water intrusion should be considered as a management tool in coastal aquifers. Artificial aquifer recharge using treated wastewater may be used to increase the safe yield of a coastal aquifer system while preserving the ecology of the coastal ecosystems.     

Impacts of Residential Development on Humid Subtropical Freshwater Resources: Southwest Florida Experience1

Abstract: The population of Collier and Lee Counties in southwestern Florida has increased 11‐fold from 1960 to 2004 with a concomitant increase in freshwater demand. Water levels and salinity within the water table aquifer over the past two to three decades have generally been stable, with more monitoring wells showing statistically significant temporal increases in water level than decreases. Residential development has had a neutral impact on the water table aquifer because the total annual evapotranspiration of residential communities is comparable to that of native vegetation and less than that of most agricultural land uses. Public water supply systems and private wells also result in net recharge to the water table aquifer with water produced from deeper aquifers. Confined freshwater aquifers have overall trends of decreasing water levels. However, with the exception of the mid‐Hawthorn aquifer, water levels in most areas recover to near background levels each summer wet season. Freshwater resources in humid subtropical areas, such as southwestern Florida, are relatively robust because of the great aquifer recharge potential from the excess of rainfall over ET during the wet season. Proper management can result in sustainable water resources.     

An Aquifer Storage and Recovery system with reclaimed wastewater to preserve native groundwater resources in El Paso, Texas

The traditional concept of Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) has been emphasized and extensively applied for water resources conservation in arid and semi-arid regions using groundwater systems as introduced in Pyne's book titled Groundwater Recharge and Wells. This paper extends the ASR concept to an integrated level in which either treated or untreated surface water or reclaimed wastewater is stored in a suitable aquifer through a system of spreading basins, infiltration galleries and recharge wells; and part or all of the stored water is recovered through production wells, dual function recharge wells, or by streams receiving increased discharge from the surrounding recharged aquifer as needed. In this paper, the author uses the El Paso Water Utilities (EPWU) ASR system for injection of reclaimed wastewater into the Hueco Bolson aquifer as an example to address challenges and resolutions faced during the design and operation of an ASR system under a new ASR system definition. This new ASR system concept consists of four subsystems: source water, storage space-aquifer, recharge facilities and recovery facilities. Even though facing challenges, this system has successfully recharged approximately 74.7 million cubic meters (19.7 billion gallons) of reclaimed wastewater into the Hueco Bolson aquifer through 10 recharge wells in the last 18 years. This ASR system has served dual purposes: reuse of reclaimed wastewater to preserve native groundwater, and restoration of groundwater by artificial recharge of reclaimed wastewater into the Hueco Bolson aquifer.     

Clogging of an Effluent Dominated Semiarid River: A Conceptual Model of Stream‐Aquifer Interactions1

Abstract: Water managers in arid and semiarid regions increasingly view treated wastewater (effluent) as an important water resource. Artificial recharge basins allow effluent to seep into the ground relieving stressed aquifers, however these basins frequently clog due to physical, chemical, and biological processes. Likewise effluent is increasingly used to maintain perennial base flow for dry streambeds, however, little is known about the impact of effluent on streambed hydraulic conductivity and stream‐aquifer interactions. We address this issue by investigating: if a clogging layer forms, how the formation of a clogging layer alters stream‐aquifer connections, and what hydrologic factors control the formation and removal of clogging layers. We focused on the Upper Santa Cruz River, Arizona where effluent from the Nogales International Waste Water Treatment Plant sustains perennial flow. Monthly sampling, along a 30 km river reach, was done with two foci: physical streambed transformations and water source identification using chemical composition. Historical dataset were included to provide a larger context for the work. Results show that localized clogging occurs in the Upper Santa Cruz River. The clogging layers perch the stream and shallow streambed causing desaturation below the streambed. With these results, a conceptual model of clogging is established in the context of a semiarid hydrologic cycle: formation during the hot premonsoon months when flow is nearly constant and removal by large flood flows (>10 m³/s) during the monsoon season. However, if the intensity of flooding during the semiarid hydrologic cycle is lessened, the dependent riparian area can experience a die off. This conceptual model leads us to the conclusion that effluent dominated riparian systems are inherently unstable due to the clogging process. Further understanding of this process could lead to improved ecosystem restoration and management.     

RECHARGE TO ALLUVIAL VALLEY AQUIFERS FROM OVERBANK FLOW AND EXCESS INFILTRATION1

ABSTRACT: Recharge is an important parameter for models that simulate water and contaminant transport in unconfined aquifers. Unfortunately, measurements of actual recharge are not usually available causing recharge to be estimated or possibly added to the calibration procedure. In this study, differences between observed water-table elevations and water-table elevations simulated with a model based on the one-dimensional Boussinesq equation were used to identify both the timing and quantity of recharge to an alluvial valley aquifer. Observed water table elevations and river stage data were recorded during a five-year period from 1991 to 1995 at the Ohio Management Systems Evaluation Area located in south-central Ohio. Direct recharge attributed to overbank flow during and shortly after flood conditions accounted for 65 percent of the total recharge computed during the five-year study period. Recharge of excess infiltration to the aquifer was intermittent and occurred soon after large rainfall events and high river stage. Specification of constant recharge with time values in ground-water simulation models seems inappropriate for stream-aquifer systems given the strong influence of the river on water table elevations in these systems.     

Multiwell Technique of Saline and Nonsaline Groundwater Pumping from Coastal Aquifers

In this article, the authors explore their recent study, which introduces the concept of extracting saline water and fresh water simultaneously from groundwater aquifers to produce water that is suitable for irrigation. To achieve these results, multiwell modeling concepts are used to exploit both the saline and nonsaline aquifer domains from geologic formations where a freshwater aquifer domain is either underlain or overlain by a saline aquifer domain. The water from these domains are either mixed to an acceptable salinity level after independent withdrawal from separate, saline or nonsaline domains present within the same aquifer, or mixed from the domains to achieve acceptable levels of salinity before withdrawal.     

OPTIMAL GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT IN TWO-AQUIFER SYSTEMS1

ABSTRACT; This paper presents a numerical model for the prediction of optimal ground water withdrawal from a two-aquifer system by observing a set of constraints determined by the ecological conditions of the ground water basin. The aquifer system consists of an upper unconfined and a lower confined aquifer with a leaky stratum between them. It is assumed that water is withdrawn from the confined aquifer only, but the unconfined aquifer will also be affected due to the leakiness of the layer separating the upper and lower aquifers. Simulation and linear programming are employed for developing a computer model for the optimal management of such systems, with the objectives of determining withdrawal rates for predetermined ground water levels.     

UTILIZING INDUCED RECHARGE FOR REGIONAL AQUIFER MANAGEMENT1

ABSTRACT: The deep aquifers of the Portland Basin are used as a regional water supply by at least six municipalities in Oregon and Washington. Maximum continuous use of the aquifers in 1998 was 13 mgd and peak emergency use was 55 mgd. Continuous use of the deep aquifers at a rate of 55 mgd has been proposed and inchoate water rights have been reserved for expansion of pumping to 121 mgd. A study was completed, using a calibrated ground water flow model, to evaluate the role of induced recharge from the Columbia River in mitigating aquifer drawdown from continuous‐use and expanded pumping scenarios in the center and eastern areas of the basin. The absolute average residual was less than 3.6 feet for steady‐state model calibrations, and less than 8.0 feet for transient calibration to a 42 mgd pumping event in 1987 with 170 feet of drawdown. Continuous use of the aquifers at a rate of 55 mgd is predicted to increase drawdown to 210 feet. Expansion of pumping to 121 mgd in the center basin is predicted to cause 400 feet of drawdown. However, expansion of pumping in the east basin is predicted to result in only 220 feet of drawdown because of induced recharge from the Columbia River.     

STABLE ISOTOPE CHARACTERIZATION OF THE IMPACTS OF ARTIFICIAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE1

ABSTRACT: Stable isotopes of deuterium and oxygen-18 of surface and ground water, together with anion concentrations and hydraulic gradients, were used to interpret mixing and flow in ground water impacted by artificial recharge. The surface water fraction (SWF), the percentage of surface water in the aquifer impacted via recharge, was estimated at different locations and depths using measured deuterium/hydrogen (DIH) ratios during the 1992, 1993, and 1994 recharge seasons. Recharged surface water completely displaced the ground water beneath the recharge basins from the regional water table at 7.60 m to 12.16 m below the land surface. Mixing occurred beneath the recharge structures in the lower portions of the aquifer (>12.16 m). Approximately 12 m down-gradient from the recharge basin, the deeper zone (19.15 m depth) of the primary aquifer was displaced completely by recharged surface water within 193, 45, and 55 days in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. At the end of the third recharge season, recharged surface water represented ～50 percent of the water in the deeper zone of the primary aquifer ～1000 m downgradient from the recharge basin. A classic asymmetrical distribution of recharged surface water resulted from the recharge induced horizontal and vertical hydraulic gradients. The distribution and breakthrough times of recharged surface water obtained with stable isotopes concurred with those of major anions and bromide in a tracer test conducted during the 1995 recharge season. This stable isotope procedure effectively quantified mixing between surface and ground water.     

EMERGENCY WATER SUPPLIES FROM GROUND WATER IN HUMID REGIONS1

ABSTRACT: This paper focuses on the development and testing of a mathematical model of an emergency ground water supply operated principally during periods of low streamflow. The process of ground water withdrawal and recharge is simulated taking account of streamflow, water demand, evapotranspiration, natural and artificial recharge and increased evapotranspiration due to artificial recharge, ground water pumpage, and streamflow contribution to pumped water. The model determines whether natural recharge is possible in less time than the return period of drought and also whether artificial recharge is needed. By simulating operation over a long period of time, the model can examine different droughts of short and long duration and can test the operating rules for ground water storage development in an area. Submodels analyze the components of the operating process including ground water flow into the stream, seepage losses, stream portion of well discharge due to induced infiltration and recharge from rainfall or water spreading. The model has been tested for areas in the humid northeastern United States.     

The Transboundary Nature of the Allende–Piedras Negras Aquifer Using a Numerical Model Approach

The Allende–Piedras Negras (APN) aquifer is located between the states of Texas (United States [U.S.]) and Coahuila (Mexico). The Rio Grande crosses the aquifer, acting as a natural and political divide between the countries. However, it remains unclear whether the APN aquifer can be considered a truly transboundary aquifer flow system, which would potentially require joint management by two different administrative jurisdictions. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the transboundary nature of this aquifer. This was achieved by developing a detailed hydrogeological model to analyze the direction of volumetric fluxes within the APN aquifer using Visual MODFLOW. The model simulated a spatially averaged cumulative drawdown of 0.76 m for the entire aquifer over an 18‐year modeling period (2000–2017). The flow convergence zone, previously located below the Rio Grande, has shifted to the U.S. side in most locations, driven by higher pumping rates of the wells located near the river. This shift of the convergence zone from one country to the other means that groundwater recharge from one side flows underneath the river to the other side. This qualifies the APN aquifer as a “transboundary groundwater flow system.” The procedure followed in this study may be applied to other aquifers that straddle the U.S.–Mexico border and may motivate future modeling studies on other poorly studied transboundary aquifers around the world and thereby enable bi‐national aquifer management.     

EDWARDS AQUIFER EVALUATION: KINNEY COUNTY,TEXAS1

ABSTRACT: The Edwards Aquifer is one of the most studied and most prolific aquifers in the United States. The aquifer is a heavily fractured and faulted carbonate aquifer with transmissivities in excess of 100 ft²/s. The City of San Antonio relies upon the Edwards Aquifer as its sole source for water. Much work has been done on quantifying recharge to the aquifer and discharge from wells and acquiring aquifer characteristics from pumping tests, specific capacity tests, and geophysical logs. Although the aquifer has been well studied in Bexar County, much less is known about the Edwards Aquifer in Kinney County. This is partly due to the lower population within the county (approximately 3,500 people) relative to the eastern counties (Uvalde, Medina, Bexar, Comal, and Hays) and the great distance of Kinney County from high profile discharge areas such as the City of San Antonio and Comal and San Marcos Springs. Three key products resulted from this study: (1) exploratory well drilling and the largest aquifer test in the county that were conducted to evaluate the well yields within a 10,000 acre study area in which a drawdown of 2.5 ft approximately 1.2 miles away was observed while pumping at approximately 4,600 gpm; (2) a recharge estimate for the Edwards Aquifer within Kinney County of approximately 71,382 ac‐ft/yr; and (3) locating the Brackettville Groundwater Divide from an evaluation of ground water flow direction and hydrograph analysis. These results help evaluate the complex hydraulics occurring within Kinney County and aid in development of ground water modeling that will be used in managing the Edwards Aquifer.     

Movement of coliform bacteria and nutrients in ground water flowing through basalt and sand aquifers

Large-scale deposition of animal manure can result in contamination of surface and ground water and in potential transfer of disease-causing enteric bacteria to animals or humans. We measured total coliform bacteria (TC), fecal coliform bacteria (FC), NO3, NH4, total P, and PO4 in ground water flowing from basalt and sand aquifers, in wells into basalt and sand aquifers, in irrigation water, and in river water. Samples were collected monthly for 1 yr. Total coliform and FC numbers were always higher in irrigation water than in ground water, indicating that soil and sediment filtered most of these bacteria before they entered the aquifers. Total coliform and FC numbers in ground water were generally higher in the faster flowing basalt aquifer than in the sand aquifer, indicating that the slower flow and finer grain size may filter more TC and FC bacteria from water. At least one coliform bacterium/100 mL of water was found in ground water from both basalt and sand aquifers, indicating that ground water pumped from these aquifers is not necessarily safe for human consumption according to the American Public Health Association and the USEPA. The NO3 concentrations were usually higher in water flowing from the sand aquifer than in water flowing from the basalt aquifer or in perched water tables in the basalt aquifer. The PO4 concentrations were usually higher in water flowing from the basalt aquifer than in water flowing from the sand aquifer. The main concern is fecal contamination of these aquifers and health consequences that may arise from human consumption.