Ghana: revival of the mineral sector

After almost two decades of decline, Ghana's mineral sector has rebounded significantly and is currently the main foreign exchange earner. Gold mining is the principal activity within the sector and accounted for 41 percent of total export earnings in 1996. This paper presents an overview of Ghana's mineral industry and covers mineral resources, production and reserves; mining investments; the role of mining in the economy; and the structure of the industry. An overview of the national mineral policy is also presented to depict the current regulatory and fiscal environment in which the industry operates. The spectacular reversal in mineral sector performance can be attributed to the adoption of World Bank recommendations in a new national mineral policy, the 1986 Minerals and Mining Law, aimed at revitalizing the sector.     

Cultivating collaboration: Lessons from initiatives to understand and manage cumulative impacts in Australian resource regions

Australia has experienced rapid development within its resource regions, with traditional mining sectors like coal, iron-ore and natural gas expanding and new industries such as coal seam gas emerging. As a result, there is an increasing prevalence and awareness of the cumulative impacts of the extractive resource industries on the society, environment and economy of these regions. Collaborative governance is emerging as a means of addressing cumulative impacts. This article undertakes an analysis of 30 case studies of collaborative governance in the resources sector of Australia. The initiatives analysed range from those focussed on information exchange and coordination to higher degrees of collaboration that involve shared resources and shared risks. The study demonstrates that there are challenges in using collaborative approaches to tackle cumulative impacts, but that significant benefits can be realised. The study highlights the need to nurture and cultivate collaborative relationships in order to provide the foundation for long-term solutions.     

The medicinal and aromatic plants business of Uttarakhand: A mini review of challenges and directions for future research

The medicinal and aromatic plants resources of Uttarakhand, India offer significant opportunities of employment and livelihood for rural communities and contribute a large share in the medicinal and aromatic plants trade of India. With the growing trade of medicinal and aromatic plants resources in the global market, the medicinal and aromatic plants business of Uttarakhand is also continuously growing in terms of trade volume, value and market reach. But, considering the ecological importance as well as unregulated exploitations of these resources, the growing business activities in this sector appear incompatible to the sustainability agenda. Through a mini review, this study assesses the medicinal and aromatic plants sector of Uttarakhand and identifies key challenges that seem incompatible for resource and business sustainability and offers some prospective research directions essential for identifying pragmatic solutions to support sustainability in the sector. This review identifies nine key challenges to sustainability in Uttarakhandʼs medicinal and aromatic plants sector. It is therefore pertinent that future research focus on the prevailing challenges of the medicinal and aromatic plants sector of Uttarakhand to develop strategies for sustainable business prospects.     

Integrating fisheries into the national development plans of Small Island Developing States (SIDS): Ten years on from Barbados

The development and effective introduction of strategies designed to ensure the ecologically and economically sustainable utilization of coastal and marine resources is perhaps the major challenge for Small Island Developing States (SIDS). In response, the 1994 Barbados Programme of Action (BPoA) called upon the SIDS to implement appropriate coastal and marine strategies and, crucially, ensure that such strategies were integrated into sustainable national development plans (NDPs). This article examines the extent to which contemporary NDPs and donor support programmes have incorporated the fisheries sector — arguably the most important coastal/marine resource for many SIDS — into such documents. Applying an assessment methodology, originally developed to identify levels of environmental mainstreaming within World Bank country assistance strategies to NDPs and donor support programmes, we are able to identify those SIDS who have most effectively integrated the fisheries sector into such documents. Comparison with data indicating the importance of the sector to the national economy (in terms of generating foreign exchange, employment generation and/or supporting domestic protein consumption levels) enables us to pinpoint those countries with substantial fisheries sectors, but a correspondingly lower than expected degree of sectoral mainstreaming. We suggest that the January 2005 review of the BPoA offers an opportune moment for such countries to redress these omissions.     

The Ethiopian mining sector

The Ethiopian Constitution of 1928 vests in the state ownership of all mineral resources. However, the mining code of 1944 recognized the right of individuals and private companies to explore for and develop those resources. The results were quite impressive; Ethiopia became a producer of gold, platinum, copper and other minerals. A revised mining code in 1971 further extended the rights of individuals and companies to develop the mineral resources of the country. In 1974, the newly established revolutionary government eliminated private ownership of mines and established instead state-owned mining companies to develop the mineral resources of the country. In time, the demand for government funding by other sectors of the economy left little for the mining sector and it went into decline. To correct that problem, the Government of Ethiopia in 1989 decided to again make private ownership in the mining sector legal. This paper describes some of the recent initiatives to open the mining sector to private enterprise.     

Privatizing the minerals sector

The end of the Cold War presents new challenges for the dynamics associated with mineral resources development. Broader approaches are needed to help mineral rich developing countries develop their minerals sector. These countries need to embark upon programmes of policy reform and privatization in order to make their mineral resources industries more efficient and responsive to free market forces (such as supply and demand and price), and to turn mineral sector decision making over to the private sector. This article examines the use of policy reform and privatization strategies to increase mineral resource production in developing countries, thereby contributing to both developing country economic growth and developed country access to mineral supplies .     

Issues in the Management of the Environment and Natural Resources in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world with a very low per capita income. The increasing poverty and instability in the political front led to degradation of the environment and natural resources in the country. The present article reviews the current use of natural resources in Bangladesh and the emerging issues in sustainable management of those scarce resources. The paper shows that developments in one sector have adversely affected resources in related sectors and calls for an integrated approach to management of the environment and natural resources in a sustainable manner. The development of strong institutional mechanisms is necessary to facilitate the sustainable management of resources and to prevent further deterioration of the environment.     

The case of artisanal mining in Bolivia: Local participatory development and mining investment opportunities

Despite the buoyant expansion of Latin America's mining sector, the small-scale mining sub-sector remains marginalized. For many countries with small-scale mining resources, the way forward to sustainable mining development is not clear. Activities, in far too many cases, have led to environmental damage, social inequity and political violence among mining communities. This article, through a case study of the Bolivian Altiplano, seeks to advance the understanding of the conditions that drive mining communities into the chain of events of impoverishment associated with environmental damage. It also examines the opportunities for sustainable human development among these communities. In Bolivia's mining sector, social inequity is pervasive and holds the mineral resources captive. This situation is further aggravated by the fact that solutions, in the short term, are uncertain. Unresolved social inequity compromises foreign direct investments since social considerations are becoming increasingly important to mining corporations when deciding whether to invest. This article outlines a preliminary strategy to move forward on social inequity. The strategy revolves mainly around implementing alternative sustainable livelihoods with the participation of the government (central and local), the private sector, NGOs and donors as facilitators and partners. Its aim is to reduce the number of families eking out a living from artisanal mining in order to enhance the viability of small-scale mining. It is hoped that, as social inequity decreases throughout the sector, the increased stability will enable stakeholders to consider foreign direct investments within the framework of the country's sustainable human development goals.     

Environmental policy for sustainable development of natural resources

This paper describes new environmental policies and expanded administrative agencies which in recent years have been adopted by many governments faced with a continuing decline in the quality of their environments. In a number of developed and developing countries, devising a far reaching environmental policy for sustainable development of the natural resources sector is a national priority. Specific environmental policies may be classified according to objectives, timeframe, mechanisms for implementation, whether or not they are binding, and the nature of sanction. This paper provides some generalizations about certain features common to most environmental policies. In the first section an examination is made of some of the most pressing problems which environmental policies relating to natural resources seek to address. The second section discusses environmental policies themselves. The third section, which makes up the main body of the paper, assesses the strengths and weaknesses of a variety of mechanisms available for implementing environmental policies to promote sustainable development in the natural resources sector.     

World water dynamics: global modeling of water resources

The growing scarcity of fresh and clean water is among the most important issues facing civilization in the 21st century. Despite the growing attention to a chronic, pernicious crisis in world's water resources our ability to correctly assess and predict global water availability, use and balance is still quite limited. An attempt is documented here in modeling global world water resources using system dynamics approach. Water resources sector (quantity and quality) is integrated with five sectors that drive industrial growth: population; agriculture; economy; nonrenewable resources; and persistent pollution. WorldWater model is developed on the basis of the last version of World3 model. Simulations of world water dynamics with WorldWater indicate that there is a strong relationship between the world water resources and future industrial growth of the world. It is also shown that the water pollution is the most important future water issue on the global level.     

再生资源的回收利用与保护生态环境

再生资源是指社会生产和消费过程中产生的可以利用的各种废旧物资。再生资源的回收利用是资源综合利用的重要组成部分,是合理利用资源、保证资源永续、减少环境污染、提高经济效益的重要手段。商业部门再生资源行业担负着再生资源的回收、加工、生产、经营业务,为国家资源综合利用事业做出了巨大贡献。     

Linking climate policy across economic sectors: A case for green growth in Nepal

While the energy sector is the largest global contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the agriculture, forestry, and other land use (AFOLU) sector account for up to 80% of GHG emissions in the least developed countries (LDCs). Despite this, the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) of LDCs, including Nepal, focus primarily on climate mitigation in the energy sector. This paper introduces green growth—a way to foster economic growth while ensuring access to resources and environmental services—as an approach to improving climate policy coherence across sectors. Using Nepal as a case country, this study models the anticipated changes in resource use and GHG emissions between 2015 and 2030, that would result from implementing climate mitigation actions in Nepal's NDC. The model uses four different scenarios. They link NDC and policies across economic sectors and offer policy insights regarding (1) energy losses that could cost up to 10% of gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030, (2) protection of forest resources by reducing the use of biomass fuels from 465 million gigajoules (GJ) in 2015 to 195 million GJ in 2030, and (3) a significant reduction in GHG emissions by 2030 relative to the business-as-usual (BAU) case by greater use of electricity from hydropower rather than biomass. These policy insights are significant for Nepal and other LDCs as they seek an energy transition towards using more renewable energy and electricity.     

Adding public value: The limits of corporate responsibility

It is suggested that natural resource companies undertaking large-scale projects may be expanding the scope of corporate social responsibility by working to enhance the capabilities of the public sector. Naturally companies are concerned to protect their investments, and to ensure their viability. They will therefore invest in necessary infrastructure and facilities of all types, where those are lacking. Such investment often provides benefits to the wider community, but with a few exceptions these are normally incidental byproducts rather than inherent objectives. The motivation for companies to provide resources of all types in order to enhance the capabilities of the public sector to provide public services is usually an expectation is that the tangible benefits will exceed the costs, rather than altruism. One driving force is to secure and maintain a company's social licence to operate. More recently competition from Chinese firms is prompting private sector companies to offer comparable investments in infrastructure. It is unclear whether investment in public sector capabilities is cyclical and liable to cutbacks when market conditions deteriorate. Changing market conditions affect not just corporate willingness to spend but also host countries’ bargaining strengths. In boom periods host countries will be more able to secure straightforward financial benefits through higher tax receipts than when markets are weak. Beyond the specific needs of individual projects corporate policies are strongly influenced by the beliefs of senior managers. External pressures both from international institutions and from NGOs also drive corporate behaviour. The success of investment in public sector capabilities relies in the end on the responses of host countries, and on how closely the objectives and interests of the government are aligned with maximising the nation's long term wealth and welfare. Where they are not corporate resources may be frittered away. There are also questions over the legitimacy of corporate investments, especially by foreign-owned companies. They have a right to offer advice and protect their legitimate interests, but these may not always coincide with those of their host countries. There is a range of questions about the appropriate role of companies, which lead on to feasible and effective ways of improving weak governance.     

Foreign direct investment and institutional obstacles: The case of Russian forestry

This article examines why, in spite of vast forest resources, Russia has been unable to attract foreign investors into its forest industry. A survey of 32 influential Western European forest companies indicates that purely economic factors, such as labour or raw material costs, are not the main reasons these companies refrain from investing. Instead, the companies identify a number of institutional factors: ambiguous legal systems; difficulties in negotiating with local authorities; unfair tax enforcement; and general political instability as the main impediments to FDI in the sector. These factors have led many companies to abandon previously considered investments in Russia, and also to terminate existing business relationships with Russian partners. The survey results also indicate that, while many investors in forestry were attracted by the potential for a growing Russian market in the early days of the transition period, they have become more and more aware of the many institutional obstacles challenging growth in the sector. The article concludes, therefore, that FDI in the Russian forestry sector is likely to remain low until a fundamental change takes place in the legal and political systems.     

Indonesia's mineral resources: Performance and prospects

This paper discusses the present position and future prospects of mineral exploration and exploitation in Indonesia. It places the industry within the economic and political context of the country as a whole and considers the development of government policy towards the sector. Although the mineral resources of Indonesia are believed to be vast, the performance of the industry in the past has been erratic. The relative political stability of the last few years, combined with rising prices, has encouraged the opening up of new mines, and has also emphasised the need for more local processing of those minerals that are produced. At present, income from oil provides most of the government revenue and consequently the prospects of this sector are critically important for the nation's future. Increased diversification can, however, be expected in the next few years as the resources of tin, bauxite, nickel, copper, coal and many other products are developed. Given a favourable political and economic climate, Indonesia could be one of the world's major mineral producers by the end of the century.     

Environment and development in the Republic of the Marshall Islands: Linking climate change with sustainable fisheries development

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a major custodian of one of the ocean's major natural resources: tuna. The commercial tuna fisheries sector is the most important economic sector in the RMI and is thus a substantial contributor to this tiny island nation's GDP. Tuna catch and its associated revenues has fluctuated in line with climatic events such as the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and, in the last decade, national fisheries development policies have begun to capitalize on the positive effects that ENSO warm events have had on the tuna populations. However, global warming is expected to have a significant impact on ENSO, and not necessarily in positive ways. This paper will focus on the relationship between environment and economic development in the RMI fisheries sector. In particular, the linkages between global warming and its effects on the tuna fisheries sector must be better understood and uncertainties accounted for so that impacts are appropriately addressed and integrated into sustainable fisheries development policies. Conclusions reached are that new fisheries development strategies that emphasize environmental‐based planning are required. The emerging ecosystem‐based approach to fisheries management is a start, as are the various international initiatives in furthering our understanding of the linkages between climate and ocean systems currently underway.     

MEASURING INTANGIBLE BENEFITS -SOME NEEDED RESEARCH1

ABSTRACT. Society has long sought to maximize the welfare of its members by allocating its limited resources so as to provide maximum satisfaction. As long as all of the values that society gains or loses are measured in the market place in terms of price, the process of maximizing through economic models is relatively straightforward. In fact, however, the total value that society receives from the use of its resources is not completely measured through the private market transactions. There are some values created which are external to the market system. The resulting underinvestment in natural resources by the private sector necessitates the entry of the public sector. The presence of intangible benefits and intangible costs has long been recognized, but completely satisfactory methods for including these in the quantitative analysis of benefit-cost have not been developed. Some progress has been made in including recreational values in project analysis via the expenditures method, the Gross National Product method, consumer surplus method, cost method, market value method, and monopoly and discriminating monopoly methods, but little has been done in the area of aesthetic values. Techniques for including such values in project evaluation need to be further researched. Tradeoff models developed by market researchers, the advertising industry, social psychologists and sociologists may have some applicability. Methodology for including proposed multiple objective functions in project analysis is also a critical need.     

Commodity booms and their impacts on the Western Australian economy: The iron ore case

Western Australia is a resource-rich province. Since the 1890s, resources booms have played a key role in the development of the state's economy. In the last few years, Western Australia's resources industry has continued to enjoy exceptional conditions created by strong international demand for commodities. This paper aims to examine the likely impact of this commodity boom in the iron ore sector on the Western Australian economy, using a general equilibrium approach. The modeling results indicate that the Western Australian economy will benefit from the expansion in iron ore exports and investment in terms of rising consumption and employment, although at the industry level there will be losers as well as winners.     

HIV and AIDS: Responding to a threat to education for sustainable development

The article seeks to sensitize the development community, particularly outside the education sector, about the issues surrounding education as a vehicle for promoting sustainable development in an AIDS environment in Africa. By illustrating how the epidemic impacts education sector staff as well as parents and students at all levels, the article intends to suggest how national authorities, NGOs and donor agencies can work out strategies to enhance the role of education in promoting sustainable development in Africa. Analysis will demonstrate how the AIDS epidemic weakens the education sector, particularly in countries with a generalized epidemic (defined as more than 3% of the adult population being HIV‐positive), undermining the sector's ability to contribute to general literacy and sustainable development. The article will demonstrate that HIV and AIDS is still not fully accepted as an educational issue, which has hampered efforts to deal with its ravages in the educational sector. The need for holistic policy frameworks for supporting teachers and administrators living with HIV and AIDS will be discussed as well as how changes in curriculum and better relations with the community are important in addressing the needs of students. The article will highlight options for developing innovative responses to HIV and AIDS in African education, showing how different forms of education can serve as vehicles for responding to the challenges of the epidemic. The examples emphasize the importance of learner‐centered instruction and partnerships with the health sector and other resources needed in an AIDS‐affected environment. Key messages of the article are that the HIV and AIDS epidemic is a multi‐sectoral problem and that responding to it effectively in the education sector requires coherent responses that address the needs of learners and instructors, including those who are personally affected or infected by HIV and AIDS. Adapting the Education for Sustainable Development initiative to address the challenges posed by the epidemic must be supported by policy development, leadership and advocacy. Diverse partnerships are essential, as the education sector alone cannot deal with the challenge of HIV and AIDS to sustainable development.     

Water Resources Development in Small Islands Perspectives and Needs*

The paper reviews the special problems of small islands in the field of water resources development. The mode of occurrence of surface and groundwater resources in the smaller Caribbean Islands is described along with the problems which arise from unfavourable hydrological conditions. A brief survey is given of the various types of water supply systems which have been developed to meet the requirements of the resident population and the tourist sector of the islands. Institutional deficiencies are discussed as they relate to the problems being experienced in the management of public water supply agencies and the conservation of water resources.