贵州城市生活垃圾焚烧过程中重金属分布和迁移特征

为了探明城市生活垃圾焚烧过程中重金属分布和迁移特征,采集贵州遵义市3个城市生活垃圾焚烧场的进场垃圾、渗滤液、飞灰、底渣和烟气样品,采用ICP-AES分析了城市生活垃圾各组分中Cu、Pb、Zn、Ni、Cd、Cr和Hg重金属含量,研究其重金属的分布和迁移特征,为实现生活垃圾焚烧无害化处理提供基础数据。研究结果表明,(1)生活垃圾渗滤液中Zn、Ni、Cu和Pb含量较高,各重金属含量基本表现为垃圾场二垃圾场一垃圾场三,各组分重金属含量基本表现为ZnCuNiPbCrCdHg。(2)底渣中Cu、Zn、Cr含量较高,Cd和Hg含量较低,飞灰中Cu、Zn、Pb、Cr含量较高,Hg含量较低。(3)底渣和飞灰重金属浸出含量均未超标,其中Pb和Cu属于潜在污染,烟气排放含量低于0.2 mg·kg~(-1),Cr、Cu、Ni和Zn重金属在烟气中均无检出。(4)重金属向渗滤液的迁移相对较弱(低于1%),底渣、飞灰和烟气等与焚烧相关的产物是重金属的主要迁移途径,Cu、Ni、Cr、Zn主要迁移至底渣中,Pb和Cd主要迁移至底渣和飞灰中,Hg主要迁移至飞灰和烟气中(27.1%~34.6%随烟气排出),综上可知,生活垃圾中Hg的治理和脱毒仍需要进一步提高。     

城市生活垃圾填埋产沼的模拟实验

通过城市生活垃圾的填埋降解模拟实验，研究了不同温度、不同垃圾成份对垃圾降解及填埋气产生过程的影响。实验结果表明：增加温度及在填埋垃圾中添加污泥，可加快填埋垃圾的降解与填埋气的产生，实验期间累计产气量分别比对照组提高2．04和3．4倍；以厨余垃圾为主的样品垃圾，其产气过程的显著特征是产气速率衰减较快，这与国外文献报道有较大差异。对我国城市生活垃圾，填埋封场后产气量的快速衰减，是填埋气利用规划设计应该考虑的问题。     

电子垃圾拆解区氯化石蜡和多氯联苯的分布特征——以广东清远龙塘镇为例

采用GC/MS法测定了广东清远龙塘镇电子垃圾拆解区电子垃圾、电子垃圾焚烧后残渣、当地池塘沉积物和对照区沉积物24种短链氯化石蜡(SCCPs)、24种中链氯化石蜡(MCCPs)和29种多氯联苯(PCBs)的浓度水平.结果显示,氯化石蜡(CPs)和PCBs大量存在于电子垃圾中.电子垃圾、残渣和池塘沉积物SCCPs和MCCPs浓度范围(干重)分别为1.6—46.8μg·g-1和7.3—215μg·g-1,PCBs的浓度范围(干重)为0.15—370.6μg·g-1,明显高于对照区,对周边造成了极大环境风险.SCCPs、MCCPs和PCBs均呈现低碳低氯同系物的相对含量在电子垃圾、电子垃圾焚烧残渣、拆解区池塘沉积物、对照区沉积物中依次递增的现象,表明CPs和PCBs在由电子垃圾向沉积物迁移过程中可能存在脱碳脱氯的降解过程.     

低热值垃圾焚烧发电运行中有关参数的监测与控制

研究适合我国国情的城市生活垃圾焚烧发电工艺,着重介绍低热值垃圾发电机组在运行过程中各主要设备的调节参数及燃烧,给水,蒸汽系统的监测与控制方法。     

医疗垃圾焚烧底灰重金属特性

本文对医疗垃圾焚烧底灰的重金属含量、重金属形态及其渗沥率进行了研究.结果表明:底灰重金属渗沥浓度低于危险废物规定的阈值,但底灰中Zn和Pb的碳酸盐态(F2)含量较高,仍具有一定的潜在危险性;底灰中zn和Pb的可交换态(F1)主要分布在小颗粒中,Pb的碳酸盐态(F2)基本不随颗粒度变化;Pb的渗沥率随初始pH值的增加近似呈U形变化,先降低后升高.     

华南某垃圾焚烧厂排放PCBs和PCNs的固气分布、同系物分布及毒性当量特征

以华南某城市生活垃圾焚烧厂一期(WI-A)和二期(WI-B)为研究对象,采集了飞灰和烟气样品,通过GC/MS对其中PCBs和PCNs的全部单体进行了测定,分析了PCBs和PCNs的固气分布(飞灰和烟气中的总量比例)、同系物分布以及毒性当量特征.结果表明,WI-A和WI-B焚烧单位垃圾产生的PCBs和PCNs总量分别为0.397 mg·t-1(湿基)和0.363 mg·t-1(湿基).活性炭喷射量对PCBs的固气分布特征和去除率影响较大,对PCNs则不明显.PCBs同系物在烟气中以低氯取代单体为主,在飞灰中以高氯取代单体为主.PCNs同系物在烟气中以五氯单体为主,在飞灰中以四氯、五氯单体为主.WI-A和WI-B排放的烟气总TEQ分别为0.051 ng TEQ·Nm-3和0.096 ng TEQ·Nm-3,WI-A烟气Co-PCBs和Dl-PCNs对总TEQ的贡献率分别为3.2%和0.13%,WI-B烟气Co-PCBs和Dl-PCNs对总TEQ的贡献率分别为5.3%和0.34%,提示垃圾焚烧排放烟气中的Co-PCBs和Dl-PCNs的毒性同样值得关注.     

模拟降水对碱性盐化土壤中镉的淋滤及形态变化的影响

采用人工模拟方式,试验研究了不同pH值的降水对碱性盐化土壤中镉的连续淋滤效果,分析了淋洗后土壤中镉的形态变化特征。结果表明,在不同pH值降水对土壤中镉的淋滤过程中,12h内基本上达到高峰,12h后镉的淋滤量较低,随着时间的延续镉的淋洗量基本保持不变;降水有利于土壤中的镉释放,且pH值越低,镉的释放量越高。土壤盐化对降水淋洗镉的效果有一定影响,氯化物的存在,有利于镉的淋滤,淋滤量增加值在18%～94%之间,随着淋洗液pH值的增加,镉的淋滤量增加幅度减少;与对照组土壤样品相比,淋洗液pH降低利于增大硫酸盐型盐化土壤中镉的淋滤量,当pH值为中性时,镉的淋滤量减少;苏打型盐化土壤镉的淋洗效果与硫酸盐型土壤相似。模拟降水淋洗后,土壤中镉的形态发生明显变化,与淋洗前相比,土壤中镉的可交换态、碳酸盐结合态、有机结合态的质量分数降低,随着淋洗液酸性的增加,降低幅度增大;镉的铁锰氧化态相对质量分数在淋洗后有所增加。     

利用垃圾堆肥改良水稻土I:对水稻土物理化学性状的影响

根据上海市农业产业结构调整过程中对土质的要求，本文从资源化利用上海市城市生活垃圾的角度出发，将自然堆置多年的垃圾堆肥应用于土壤改良．由于垃圾堆肥质地粗松，含有较高的营养成分，同时考虑到水稻土对垃圾堆肥的承纳量，本实验设计了0、7．5、15、22．5kgm^-2 4个垃圾堆肥施用剂量，经过一个完整的生长季节后采集土壤样品进行理化分析．结果表明，相较对照小区(0kg m^-2)，施用垃圾堆肥可以有效地改良水稻土的物理化学性状：有机质、全N、全P、碱解N和速效P的含量分别提高5％—240％，土壤中细砂含量升高，粘粒含量下降．而且这种改良的效果随着垃圾堆肥施用量的增加而增加．在不同耕作深度上，以0-10cm土层的效果最佳，10—20cm次之，20—40cm最低．本实验结果表明，垃圾堆肥不仅是上海市水田旱作土壤的有效改良添加剂，而且是解决城市生活垃圾出路的一条有效途径．表2参7     

干湿交替模式下土壤中镉的释放特征

用模拟试验研究了三峡库区消落带四种典型土壤在干湿交替模式下镉的释放特征.结果表明,周期性的干湿交替模式对土壤中镉的释放有明显的抑制作用,抑制效果为:紫色土＞灰棕潮土＞紫色潮土＞黄壤.随着干湿交替周期的延长,各种土壤对镉的释放速率都显著下降.干湿交替增强了土壤胶体对镉的吸持能力,镉的交换吸附态所占比例减少,解吸过程发生的难度增大.紫色土、紫色潮土和灰棕潮土对镉的初始释放量均呈现出随干湿交替周期的延长而逐渐下降的趋势;黄壤对镉的初始释放量却随干湿交替周期的延长而逐渐上升.     

城市垃圾焚烧炉内残渣性质结渣形成

以城市垃圾焚烧后的残渣为研究对象，着重地介绍城市垃焚烧炉中灰渣的形成，结构，组成等基本性质，同时借鉴燃煤技术初步探讨了城市垃圾焚烧过程中结渣的形成，对垃圾焚烧炉的正常运行提供科学的保护，对残渣的管理及综合利用有一定的意义。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.